Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Research Paper Example

ADHD The disorder, ADHD or Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder refers to a neurobehavioral and psychiatric disorder. Commonly known as ADHD, this disorder is characterized by numerous major difficulties such as hyperactivity or inattention and impulsiveness or a blend of these two. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) reports that the symptoms of ADHD begin emerging in children before seven years of age (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). This disorder can be divided into three subtypes that includes (i) predominately hyperactive-impulsive (ADHD-HI or ADHD-H), (ii) ADHD being mainly inattentive (ADHD-PI or ADHD-I), or the mixture of these two (ADHD-C). People usually mean ADHD-PI, when they refer to "Attention deficit disorder" (ADD). The disorder, ADHD, usually affects the young school-aged children adversely and ultimately makes them act in impulsive manner, stay restless, and lack focus, and these features, in turn, impact their ability to learn properly. It is pertained to as the most commonly diagnosed and studied psychiatric disorder in children, that affects approximately about 3 to 5 percent of children all across the world (Nair, Ephemera, Beitman, Nair, Lavin, 2006). This chronic disorder continues in the 30 to 50 percent of those people who had it diagnosed in their early childhood and their ADHD disorder, with all its symptoms, is continued into adulthood. The adults and adolescents suffering from ADHD are prone to build up the coping system in order to compensate for all or at least some of their impairments. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common disorder that is a diagnosed behavior disorder in children (Jensen et al. 2005), and it is increasingly being diagnosed in adults as well. There are children who suffer from ADHD and have to counter issues related to self-esteem issues and their parents do not usually associate with that disorder. In turn, ADHD is often associated with other problems, and its consequences are seen in different environments of the child's life; they are not limited to school only, but also greatly affect both interpersonal relationships with family, as with other children and their teachers, and with other key relationships in child development. According the U.S. classification of psychiatric DSM-IV, not all people with ADHD have the same condition (Havey, 2007). In some people, there exist predominantly inattentive ADHD symptoms, in others hyperactivity and impulsivity, and some of the people have to counter both the attention as well as hyperactivity and impulsivity problems. Of all the subtypes of ADHD, the most common is the combined, followed by the predominantly hyperactive-impulsive. The predominantly inattentive subtype is the least common of them, and is more common in girls than in boys, compared with other medical conditions that are found more in boys than in girls. That is, because the symptoms of inattention are more subtle, less detected and causes the diagnosis of ADHD in children / adolescents take longer to complete or, in many cases, they even go unnoticed. People with a disorder of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have difficulty concentrating, and being attentive to the completion of complex tasks in the least. They often have trouble staying up, waiting their turn and often act impulsively. Although these behaviors can be found in all human beings, they are present in abnormally pronounced and prolonged in those with ADHD. They are also present in all the circumstances of life (not just at school or just at home, for example). ADHD in adolescents and adults ADHD is more frequently observed than in children than in adults. An estimated 4% of adults suffer from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and in other, ADHD is sometimes not diagnosed until adulthood. Three symptoms primarily characterize the presence of ADHD: inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. They may be present in varying degrees. In the vast majority of sufferers, ADHD has a neurological origin which may depend on heredity and environmental factors. Experts are adamant about this that ADHD is not caused by unmet emotional needs or psychosocial problems, although it can be exacerbated by these factors. ADHD is usually diagnosed around the age of seven (Davis-Berman, Pestello, 2010). However, children with ADHD have challenging behaviors before they return to school, often at the age of 2 years. There is no link between ADHD and intelligence of the child. Academic difficulties suffered by most children with ADHD are often associated with behavioral disorders or attention deficit disorder, but not to the lack of intelligence. This is the most common neurobehavioral disorder in children: 5% to 10% of them would be achieved. It has long been argued that the prevalence was higher among males, probably because boys with ADHD were more hyperactive behavior, which is more noticeable than girls (in which inattention predominates) (Fabiano, et.al., 2009). However, more recent studies do not appear to be significant differences between the sexes. Though ADHD has the social difficulties as its primary characteristics, there is still a little knowledge regarding the variety of these social problems, their etiology, or their association with the disorders of social behavior, such as Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD) or autism. A study undertook to investigate 379 adolescents and children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and their social functioning was examined and investigated through the application of Child Behavior Checklist. The two factors were labeled as the Social Immaturity and Peer rejection. Using the modeling of structural equation and factor analysis, it was disclosed that there exists a vital connection between the two factors. However, this link was stronger for the Social Immaturity (Standardized Beta [β] = .51) than Peer Rejection (β = .29). There were a greater number of hyperactive symptoms that linked the social Immaturity, while increased aggression was associated with higher Peer Rejection and a lower IQ in the children suffering from ADHD (Rich et. al., 2009). Still (1902), in his study, indicated that, there were 43 children included in his clinical practice who were suffering from serious problems of continued attention, and this was in correspondence with the view of William James (1890), that in order to regulate the moral behavior of an individual, this type of attention was a significant component of behavior. Majority of the individuals that still was dealing with depicted really overactive behaviors. Many of them were also characterized as defiant, aggressive, excessively “passionate” or emotional, unwilling to adopt discipline and all of the subjects displayed a little “inhibitory volition” over their attitudes. It was proposed by Still that the primary quality of his subjects was the quick gratification of the individual nature. Amongst all other characteristics, the heightened emotionality (passion) has been the most prominent and common feature (p. 1008). The studies undertaken have also examined that the lack of attention and the unwillingness to be attentive as the major features of the children suffering from ADHD (Russell, 2012). One of the articles appearing in the Journal of Social work undertook to study the subject of children with ADHD in more detail. The author has performed a qualitative study in order to investigate the management of courtesy stigma by the parents of adults and adolescents suffering with the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). For this purpose, the researcher conducts focus groups interviews with fathers and mothers of adolescents and adults suffering from ADHD. They are a part of a group study regarding the service use and detection of ADHD. By utilizing the grounded theory analysis, it is found by the researchers that the parents of these adolescents show reaction to the external expectations that have been put forward by numerous community networks; however, they in the context of immediate family members, their response is exhibited towards the internalized sense of responsibility. Adding to this, the study suggested that the stigma management by parents goes beyond countering the disability of their child, which adds an additional layer of hectic demands which may be diminished with the help of societal stigma reduction (Mirka and Regina, 2009). Another article published online, explores the subject of ADHD in an extended manner. An article published by the Journal of Family Issues investigates the cultural variance in parental knowledge, health beliefs, and sources of information associated with the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The study conducts structured interviews by selecting samples from the respective community of 1,615 parents, which also comprises of a survey undertaken to obtain knowledge on people's perceptions about ADHD. The researcher collects the data and information through the behavioral questionnaires, and investigated the chosen people about the treatment, detection, diagnosis and symptoms of the attention deficit hyperacid disorder. The findings of the study indicated that the majority of the parents had heard about and thought of themselves being knowledgeable about the treatment and diagnosis of ADHD, but they were not familiar with the relevant school services; on the other hands, those people who were aware of this information, considered they as low on knowledge. It was indicated by the study that, in comparison to the Caucasian counterparts, most of the African American parents rated them as low on awareness regarding ADHD and also ranked themselves as having lower self-rated knowledge. They had witnessed lesser hints to action, like obtaining the information on ADHD through reading the media accounts or hearing from teachers. Moreover, they made more etiological attributions to sugar intake and expected less benefit from treatment. Study findings suggest a compelling need for more culturally appropriate approaches to educating African American parents about the causes and treatment options for ADHD (Bussing et.al. 2007). Attention deficit hyperactivity Disorder was also reviewed by a study conducted by Sara Scholtens (2011). In order to investigate the effects of the ODD and ADHD symptoms along with the cognitive functioning on positive bias and social acceptance and In children, a sample size of 86 children was selected which comprised on 49 girls, aged between 7 and 13 years. This sample was recruited to mirror a broad range of ADHD symptoms. The teachers and parents reported on ODD and ADHD symptoms and on the social acceptance; while, the children were given to perform the tasks of inhibition, working memory, and variability of reaction time for the reporting on the element of social acceptance. A discrepancy score was used between the social reports of adult and the child and to was utilized to measure the positive bias. The findings of the variance in social acceptance were explained by the inattention independently. There was a relationship of the cognitive factors with positive bias and social acceptance, but it did not extend beyond the symptoms of ODD and ADHD. Thus, it was revealed that is the chiefly the disruptive behavior in adolescents and children which contributes towards the external reports of children’s social acceptance (Scholtens et.al. 2011). It is not easy to establish a diagnosis of ADHD because the same symptoms can result from other disorders related more or less closely with ADHD. Therefore, the diagnosis of ADHD is usually based on a thorough assessment of the child and the environment. The doctors first examines the psychomotor development of the child. Parents are asked to provide a history of the development of the child. Psychological and neuropsychological testing may also be useful to assess the IQ and its potential for learning. Teachers can also contribute to the assessment of the child. There are no neurological or psychological test that can diagnose the disease formally. According to the criteria of the American Psychiatric Association, one must observe the number of symptoms of inattention or hyperactivity / impulsivity in children with ADHD. Once the diagnosis is confirmed, it is important to know that the symptoms must be present before the age of seven years; symptoms must occur both at home and at daycare or school, although their intensity may vary from one place to another; symptoms must be present for at least 6 months. ADHD is a complex disease that does not have a single cause. It is a neurological disorder linked to abnormal development and brain function (Russell, 2012). Thus, the researchers have found that, in children or adults with ADHD, the brain areas are responsible for attention, sense of organization and control of movements activate improperly or have a unique anatomy. They have also noted an imbalance in the levels of certain chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) in the brain, such as dopamine and norepinephrine. References Bussing, R., Gary, F.A, Mills, T.L., &Garvan, C.W. (2007).Cultural Variations in Parental Health Beliefs, Knowledge, and Information Resources Related to Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Family Issues28, (3) 291-318. doi: 10.1177/0192513X06296117 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (2010), Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Symptoms and Diagnosis, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Accessed online, Retrieved on October 30, 2012 Davis-Berman, J., &Pestello, F.G (2010). Medicating for ADD/ADHD: Personal and Social Issues. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction 8,482-492. doi: 10.1007/s11469-008-9167-z Fabiano, G.A., Vujnovic, R., Naylor, J., Pariseau, M. & Robbins, M. (2009).An Investigation of the Technical Adequacy of a Daily Behavior Report Card (DBRC) for Monitoring Students withAttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Special Education Placements. Assessment for Effective Intervention34, (4) 231-241.doi: 10.1177/153450809333344 Havey, J.M. (2007).A Comparison of Dutch and U.S Teachers’ Perceptions of the Incidence and Management of ADHD. School Psychology International 28, (1) 46-52. doi: 10.1177/0143034307 Jensen, Peter S., and Joe Albert Garcia, et al. 2005. Cost-effectiveness of ADHD treatments: Findings from the multimodal treatment study of children with ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry 162 (9): 1628–36. Mirka Koro-Ljungberg and Regina Bussing, (2009), The Management of Courtesy Stigma in the Lives of Families With Teenagers with ADHD, Journal of Family Issues, DOI: 10.1177/0192513X09333707 Nair J, Ehimare U, Beitman BD, Nair SS, Lavin A (2006). Clinical review: evidence-based diagnosis and treatment of ADHD in children. Mo Med 103 (6): 617–21. PMID 17256270. Rich, E.C., Loo,S.K., Yang, M., Dang, J., & Smalley, S.L. ( 2009).Social Functioning Difficulties in ADHD: Association With PDD Risk. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry14, (3) 329-344. doi: 10.1177/1359104508100890 Russell A. Barkley and Helmut Peters, (2012), The Earliest Reference to ADHD in the Medical Literature? Melchior Adam Weikard's Description in 1775 of "Attention Deficit", Journal of Attention Disorders, DOI: 10.1177/1087054711432309 Scholtens, S., Diamantopoulou, S., Tillman, C.M., &Rydell, A.M. (2012). Effects of Symptoms of ADHD, ODD, and Cognitive Functioning on Social Acceptance and the Positive Illusory Bias in Children. Journal of Attention Disorders 16, (8) 685-696. doi: 10.1177/108705471141739 Read More