Human Anatomy and Physiology - Term Paper Example

Human Anatomy and Physiology Human Anatomy and Physiology By studying the movements required for the execution of a kick in a football game, one can trace the various activities required to move three of the more common types of joints in the human body, the ball and socket joint, the hinge joint and the pivot joint. These motions can be seen in the hip, the knee and the neck respectively as the player swings his foot, straightens his leg and turns his head to follow the trajectory of the ball. How these joints work, including the muscles involved and the exact movements produced, will be discussed throughout this paper. Ball and Socket Joint The hip joint is a good example of a ball and socket joint. A ball and socket joint is so-called because of its general physical makeup, which consists of a bony pocket and a ball-like appendage on the connecting bone that fits within this pocket. This type of joint provides a wide range of motion in several directions as well as the ability to carry a great deal of strength. In addition to the hip joint, the shoulder joint is another example of a ball and socket joint. The bones of this joint consist of the ilium, the femur and the ischium. The ilium contains “four spines serving as sites for muscle and ligamentous attachments” while “two large processes - an upper, lateral ‘greater trochanter’ and a lower, medial ‘lesser trochanter.’ … provide attachments for muscles of the legs and buttocks” (“Human Anatomy Online”, 2004). The important ligaments involved in this joint include the pubofemoral ligament, the iliofemoral ligament, the ligaments of the sacrum and the ischiofemoral ligament. (Netter 1995) The major muscles involved in this joint include the iliopsoas muscles, the gluteous muscles, the piriformis and gemellus muscles, the sartorius muscle, the pectineus muscle, the quadriceps femoris muscles, the gracilis muscle, the adductor muscles and the hamstring muscles. The iliopsoas is actually two muscles that blend (“Human Anatomy Online”, 2004). The psoas major originates at the “sides of T12 to L5 vertebrae and intervertebral discs between them” and its insertion at the lesser trochanter of the femur. The iliacus originates at the iliac crest, iliac fossa, ala of sacrum, and the anterior sacroiliac ligaments while insertions are at the tendon of psoas major and the body of the femur, inferior to the lesser trochanter (“Muscles of the Hip and Thigh”, 1998). These muscles are the strongest flexor muscles of the thigh and work to maintain erect posture at the joints as well as to raise the trunk from a flat (lying down) position. The gluteal muscles originate on the outer surface of the ileum and, in the case of the gluteus maximus, also on the sacrum, coccyx and the sacrotuberous ligament. The insertion point is the greater trochanter of the femur and, again in the case of the gluteus maximus, on the iliotibial tract. These muscles work in combination to rotate the thigh, abduct the thigh and tilt the pelvis when walking or running. The piriformis muscle originates on the anterior surface of the sacrum while the gemellus muscles originate on the spine of the ischeum for the major and on the ischial tuberosity for the inferior. For all three, the insertion point is the greater trochanteric fossa. These muscles work to rotate the thigh laterally. The sartorius muscle originates at the anterior superior iliac spine and inserts at the upper medial surface of the tibia. It works to flex, abduct and laterally rotate the thigh as well as to flex and medially rotate the leg. The pectineus muscle originates at the superior ramus of the pubis, inserts at the upper end shaft of the femur and works to flex and adduct the thigh. Most of the quadriceps femoris muscles originate from the femur, either the shaft or the head, and insert at the quadriceps tendon into the patella and into the tibial tuberosity by the patellar tendon. These muscles work to extend the leg. The gracilis muscle and the two smaller adductor muscles all originate on the inferior ramus of the pubis while the adductor longus originates on the body of the pubis. However, the gracilis muscle inserts at the upper part of the shaft of the tibia on the medial surface while the adductor muscles (all of them) insert on posterior surface of the shaft of the femur. The gracilis muscle adducts the thigh and flexes the leg while the adductor muscles adduct the thigh and assist in lateral rotation. The hamstring muscles include the biceps femoris, the semitendinosus, the semimembranosus and the adductor magnus, all of which originate from the ischial tuberosity. The biceps femoris inserts at the head of the fibula, the semitendinosus inserts at the upper part medial surface of the shaft of the tibia, the semimembranosus inserts at the medial condyle of the tibia and forms the oblique popliteal ligament and the adductor magnus inserts at the adductor tubercle of the femur. The biceps femoris flexes and laterally rotates the leg and extends the thigh while the adductor magnus works to extend the thigh. The other muscles in this group work to flex and medially rotate the leg and extend the thigh (Norman, 1999). (Gray, 1918) In performing an action such as a drop kick in soccer, the hip works in the following manner. To begin with, the hamstring contracts to start the backswing of the leg. This contraction begins to reduce during the backswing and the gluteal is activated to coincide with opposite leg support. The adductor muscles then begin to flex and continue to do so even after the quadriceps begin to contract as the most active muscle group in the wind-up motion and forward swing. As the ball is struck, the hamstrings again begin to contract in preparation for the recovery step (Orchard, Walt, McIntosh & Garlick, 1999). Of course, a big part of the success of this kick depends upon the knee joint functioning correctly as well, which involves movement of another type of joint, the hinge joint. Hinge Joint There are several hinge joints located throughout the human body including the knee, elbow, finger and toe joints. These joints are characterized by a cupped bone on one side and a curved bone on the other that fit together in such a way as to allow motion in one plane only, much like the hinge on the front door only allows the door to swing open or closed. The major bones involved in the knee joint include the femur, the tibia, the fibula and the patella. The patella is often called the kneecap and is connected by muscle to the tibia in order to protect the joint from injury. The major ligaments include the lateral and medial collateral ligaments, the transverse ligament, the patellar ligament, the cruciate ligaments and the posterior meniscofemoral ligament (“Human Anatomy Online”, 2004). (Shiel, 2005). The major muscles involved in making this joint work are the quadriceps femoris muscles, the hamstring muscles, the adductor muscles, the gracilis muscle, the sartorius muscle, the dorsal flexors, the peroneus muscles, the popliteus muscle and the plantar flexor muscles (“Human Anatomy Online”, 2004). The quadriceps femoris muscles, the hamstring muscles, the adductor muscles, the gracilis muscle and the sartorius muscle have already been discussed in the previous discussion. As these specifically relate to the knee, the four parts of the quadriceps femoris muscles “connect the ilium and femur to a common ‘patellar tendon,’ which passes over the front of the knee and attaches to the patella (knee cap). This tendon then continues as the ‘patelar ligament’ to the tibia” (“Human Anatomy Online”, 2004). The gracilis and sartorius muscles flex and rotate the leg medially at the knee in unique ways. The dorsal flexor muscles include the tibialis anterior which originates from the shaft of the tibia and inserts at the medial cuneiform and the base of the first metatarsal (bones in the ankle and foot) to extend the foot; the peroneus tertius, the extensor digitorum longus and the extensor hallucis longus which all originate on the shaft of the fibula and the interosseous membrane. The peroneus tertius inserts on the extensor expansion of the lateral four toes, the extensor digitorum longus inserts on the base of the fifth metatarsal bone and the extensor hallucis longus inserts on the base of the distal phalanx of the big toe (Norman 1999) all of which contribute to various motions of the foot. The peroneus longus and brevis muscles originate on the shaft of the fibula and insert at the base of the first metatarsal and medial cuneiform (longus) and the base of the fifth metatarsal bone (brevis) and work to flex the foot. The popliteus muscle originates from the lateral condyle of the femur and inserts at the shaft of the tibia. It flexes the leg and unlocks full extension of the knee (Norman 1999). The plantar muscles include the gastrocnemius, originating from the medial and lateral condyles of the femur and inserting by way of the Achilles tendon to the calcaneum; the soleus, originating from the shafts of the tibia and fibula and inserting by way of the Achilles tendon to the calcaneum; and the flexor digitorum longus, originating from the shaft of the tibia and inserting into the distal phalanges of the lateral four toes – all working to flex the foot and the toes, providing the propulsive force in walking or running (Norman 1999). (Adam, 2003) As the drop kick is developing and the hamstring muscles are contracting to draw the leg into the backswing, these muscles are also working to bring up the knee while the plantar muscles come into play in controlling the feet. The quadriceps continue to flex in bringing up the knee along with the hamstrings through the wind up process contributing to the sharp extension of the forward swing. At this point, the plantar muscle group is still in flexion holding the foot in a fixed position. Follow through of the kick is marked by a significant decrease in muscle usage, with some involvement of hamstring contraction (Orchard, Walt, McIntosh & Garlick, 1999). As the ball leaves the ground, it is only natural to watch where it goes, following its trajectory with the eyes as well as the head. This involves movement of the neck and the usage of a third type of joint referred to as the pivot joint. As your head follows the ball from one side of the field to the other laterally, you are employing this joint. Pivot joint A pivot joint allows rotary movement only. Two examples of this type of joint in the body include the joint between the first and second cervical vertebrae directly under the skull and allows the head to turn from side to side. This type of joint is also located in the elbow area, enabling us to twist the bones of the lower arm (the ulna and the radius) against the upper arm. The first vertebra in this joint is called the atlas and its primary function is to support and balance the head. “It has practically no body or spine and appears as a bony ring with two transverse processes. On its upper surface, the atlas has two kidney-shaped facets that unite with the occipital condyles of the skull” (“Human Anatomy Online”, 2004). The second vertebra is called the axis and it is characterized by “a tooth-like odontoid process on its body. This process projects upward and lies in the ring of the atlas. As the head is turned from side to side, the atlas pivots around the odontoid process” (“Human Anatomy Online”, 2004). The movement of the atlas against the axis is a complicated procedure, but here we are concentrating on the pivot movement between the odontoid process of the axis and the ring formed by the anterior arch and the transverse ligament of the atlas. The principle ligaments connecting these bones are the two articular capsules, the anterior atlantoaxial, the posterior atlantoaxial and the transverse. The articular capsules connect at the base of the odontoid process and at the lateral mass of the atlas near the transverse ligament. The anterior atlantoaxial ligament connect to the lower border of the anterior arch of the atlas and to the front of the body of the axis. The principal muscles used in making this rotation are the sternocleidomastoideus and the semispinalis capitis on one side of the spinal column and the longus capitus, splenius, longissimus capitis, rectus capitis posterior major and obliqui capitis superior and inferior on the other side. These muscles act antagonistically, one side contracting while the other side releases to rotate the head from side to side and also to pull the head backward (Gray, 1918). As the ball moves from one side of the field to another, the muscles on the side of the spinal cord toward where the ball is traveling to will begin to contract even as the muscles on the side of the spinal cord from which the ball is traveling being to release, allowing the head to rotate on that pivot joint. References Adam. (2003). “Knee Pain.” All Refer Health. Retrieved 24 February 2006 from < http://health.allrefer.com/health/knee-pain-lower-leg-muscles-1.html> Anatomy Project. (1997). Medical Gross Anatomy. University of Michigan. Retrieved 24 February 2006 from Gray, Henry. (1918). Gray’s Anatomy. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. Retrieved 23 February 2006 from < http://education.yahoo.com/reference/gray/illustrations/figure?id=430> “Human Anatomy Online.” (2004). Innerbody.com. Retrieved 23 February 2006 from < http://www.innerbody.com/image/skel15.html> “Muscles of the Hip and Thigh.” (6 July 1998). Medinotes. Retrieved 23 February 2006 from < http://www.geocities.com/medinotes/mmhipthg.htm> Netter, Frank H. (1995). “Hip Joint – Anterior View” [illustration]. Novartis [Interactive Atlas of Human Anatomy]. Retrieved 23 February 2006 from < http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9040532> Norton, Wesley. (1999). “Table of Lower Limb Muscles.” The Anatomy Lesson. Retrieved 23 February 2006 from < http://mywebpages.comcast.net/wnor/tableofmuscles.htm> Orchard, John; Walt, Sharon; McIntosh, Andrew & Garlick, David. (1999). “Muscle Activity During the Drop Punt Kick.” Journal of Sports Science. Vol. 17, I. 10, pp. 837-38. Shiel, William Jr. (2005). “Knee Pain.” MedicineNet.com. Retrieved 24 February 2006 from < http://www.medicinenet.com/knee_pain/article.htm> Read More