Promotion in Schools and University - Dissertation Example

College 10. Health education/promotion in schools and As always said, prevention is always better than cure. And it is this saying that most schools and universities have put into considerations when dealing with the promotion of a healthy lifestyle. Most institutions try their best in ensuring that they educate their students on preventive measures that they have to put in place to promote their health. Other institutions of learning have also set aside departments to directly deal the promotion of healthy leaving as the students are in school (Shiner, 1996). 10.1 Health education/promotion in schools WHO insists that effective health promotion program remains one of the major investments that many nations invest in. WHO further clarifies that with a better planned health promotion program, a nation is able to invest in the future by ensuring that its generation grows in a healthy and stable state. Due to this, many schools are putting strategies to ensure that there are effective measures to healthy living. One of the main things that schools have done is to ensure that each school has a health facility within its premises. This ensures that in case a student is sick, they are able to get medical attention within the shortest time possible. The health facility also has to be well equipped. Equipping also mean that professionals have to be in the healthcare facility to provide the services needed. The other important thing that most schools have done is to ensure that each and every classroom has a first aid kit and a fire extinguisher. These two tools are very crucial especially in instances of accidents. WHO maintains that it is necessary for every institution of learning to have a fire extinguisher and a fire assembly point in every block. Preventing risky behavior in schools should also be a major priority in schools. Schools should ensure that there are set rules that work towards ensuring that each and every student is protected from any risky behavior. For example, most schools do not allow any gun or weapon of any nature within its premises. This ensures that the risks of accident arising from such wapons are reduced. Jackson a principal in one of the Australian schools maintains that the only weapon that should be found in schools is books and pens. Not even teachers are allowed to have weapons and the school should ensure that the entire population is protected (Seeley, 1996). Since most schools have students in their early sexual lives, it is the responsibility of schools to ensure that students protect themselves from contracting STD’s. One way of doing this is though sex education. Many schools in the UK now have included sex education in their syllabus to enlighten teenagers on various risky sexual behaviors that they have to avoid. With the right kind of knowledge, students are able to live a healthy sexual life which is a major boost to their health. 10.2 Health education/promotion in Universities Most universities admit students in their late teens and early twenties. At this point of time, the students are learning to become independent since they are always away from home. Due to this, there are very many cases of students acting irresponsibly due to their naive nature. Health promotion in universities is therefore more serious in Britain Universities than in any other stages of schooling. The first thing that most university administration has to do whenever they have a new intake is to educate their new intake on how to behave responsibly when they are in the university. They are taught about ways to avoid peer pressure and other forms of temptations that may come to them (United Nations Development Programme, 2012). Drugs abuse is one of the major challenges that universities all over the world face. Most students usually start their drug addiction in the university and it is due to this that most universities have come up with strict measures to ensure that university students are protected from this behavior. The first thing that most universities have put in place is ensuring that the university compound is a drug free area (Patterson, G.R.; Forgatch, 1998). This ensures that no drugs are allowed into the university. Anyone caught with drugs either using or selling it is arrested and charged in a court of law. In case it is a student, they have to face disciplinary actions which may involve expulsion or suspension with heavy penalties depending on the crime. Students also have a chance to undergo education on how to become drug free and to ensure that they are not caught in such tricky situations (Light, 1993). Sex is also a very risky behavior in universities. Due to this, most university administrations around the world have had to educate their students on various ways to stay safe and to avoid risky sex behavior. Universities are also known to protect their students by providing them with safe sex tools such as condoms especially in the bathrooms. This ensures that students have access to such materials which are very important for them to live a healthy sex life. Abstinence is also encouraged through organized events that students have to be allowed to attend (Satterfield, 1997). Most universities do have health facilities that provide their students with the necessary services that they need at the right time. This ensures that incase of anything, students do not have necessary healthcare near them. The healthcare facilities also ensure that students are treated at the right time (Scott, 2001). The other way universities promote good health is through keeping and ensuring that the entire compound is clean. A clean environment is one of the major health boosters. Provision of water and proper sanitation is also a way to ensure that students are well taken care of. Proper sanitation will ensure that there are diseases that students are not exposed to (Larzelere, 1990). At the same time, proper sanitation can also be used as a measure to treat some diseases such as cold. With these conditions in schools and universities, students are guaranteed of proper health and comfortable stay in schools. This not only promotes better health but also creates a smooth environment for learning (Berthoud, 1999). 11. Health risk behavior theories and models Health risk behavior theories and models come from various branches of social sciences. Many scholars have been interested in finding out more information on how human beings especially the youth get involved in risky behavior (Kolvin, 1990). This part of the literature review looks at some of the theories of risky human behavior that has been presented by various scholars. The theories and models are crucial to preventing such risky behavior by thinking ahead of the students (Yoshikawa, 1994) 11.1 Health belief model The health belief model popularly known as HBM by many scholars is one of the most known social cognition theories. It mainly deals with changes in health behavior and in most cases attributed to the changes that individuals make that later have influences on their health. Developed in 1965 by Rosenstock, the model has undergone a lot of developments over the years with various scholars introducing more ideas to the field (Werner, 1982). HBD’s main suggestion is that a person’s belief in any threat to themselves together with the effect that the behavior will bring to them determines the likelihood of that person getting involved in the behavior. In other words, for any person to get involved in a risky behavior, they have to have a belief in that behavior and have a clue on the effect that the behavior will bring to their lives (Field, 1979). A good example is, John is a student who believes that all drivers are careful and that on a zebra crossing, no driver can hit a passenger. During lunch break he gets into the road reading a magazine expecting not to be hit by a car since he believes that all drives are careful. This model therefore suggests that most risky behaviors can be stopped by avoiding the assumptions and beliefs that they have (Goldstein, 1990). ( Learmonth, 1998) 11.2 Theory of reasoned action Developed by Martin Fishbein, the Theory of reasoned action is a risk behavior model that predicts the intentions that a person has by behaving in a certain manner. This model started out as the study of how attitude and behavior are related. The three constituents of this theory are behavior, attitude and the subjective norm. The model suggests that the behavior of a person is determined by that person’s attitude towards the behavior (Glendinning, 2002). This shows that is someone wants to do a certain behavior then there is a high probability that he will do this behavior. This model can be used to influence the behavior of students by influencing their attitudes towards a certain behavior. For example, a school may attribute drug addiction to poor life therefore influencing the attitude of students towards drugs (Diclemente, 1996). 11.3 Theory of planned behaviors This is the theory that tries to explain the relationship between behavior and beliefs. Developed by Icek Ajzen due to the need to better the theory of reasoned action. This theory has been applied in many studies including the study of attitudes, beliefs and behavior. It works towards finding the relationship between them. The theory suggests that a person’s behavior is determined by the subjective norms, the attitude of the person towards the behavior and the behavioral control (Gorsuch, 1976). A good example is that a person’s confidence in doing something really influences that individual’s behavior. The Self-efficacy theory has been applied to the health field an example being mental health, physical activities, being physically fit. The theory has further helped to explain the relationship between the various factors such as attitudes, intentions, behavior, beliefs (Elgar & Sherman, 2003). 11.4 Problem Behavior Theory The Problem behavior theory written in short form as PTB is any behavior that is unacceptable by both the society and the legal authority or by law and tends to have some control over the social response whether incarceration, rejection by society or mild reproof. This is according to Jessor(1987) and it was developed to help with alcohol abuses study by being a psychological model that tries or helps to come up with an explanation of behavioral outcomes like drugs and substance abuse by keenly looking at three systems of psychological influence. To start with is Personality system which includes personal expectations, values, beliefs. Secondly is the perceived environment system the peers and family expectations lastly is the behavioral system (Berkowitz, 1978). All the three systems as stated above are comprised in the PTB, they use different ways that increase or decrease he likelihood of a certain behavior to occur. The unconventional-conventional behaviors of a person is considered when researchers examine and analyze the chances of a risk behavior to occur thus helps researchers predict future behaviors. Unconventional behavior are those that are unacceptable socially like drug abuse while Conventional behaviors are those acceptable like helping others, going to church this is according to Donavan’s definition of 1991 (Read, 200). PTB thereafter widened to include research that has helped strengthen ability to predict behavior. In Jessor’s study of 1995, protective factors such as adult relationships, positive school orientation among others were analyzed so as to discover their effects on risk behaviors by relating it to PTB, it was seen that these protective factors pose no risk. It was also concluded by researchers by analyzing school children that protective factors strongly affects adolescent behavior over a period of time(Haignere, 1979) PBT is not the only theory used to predict, Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) are used too.PBT is today used to predict actions of a person can take that can cause changes in their behavior such as drug and substance abuse for example students of a school can use it to determine factors that contribute to alcohol use during adolescence (Wilson, 1980). Finally, PBT is efficient because it provides a powerful tool that really aids to predict therefore it’s used in many aspects of public health which is advantageous because it caters for the efficiency and effectiveness of future health programs (Hough, 1998). 11.5 Decision-making theory This theory is associated with identifying issues that are relevant in a certain decision such as uncertainties and values among others. Most of decision theory is either prescriptive or normative in other words its main concern is to come up with the best decision according to the situation. Decision analysis is the practical application of this approach which is focused on finding methods and tools to help a person make better decisions and the Decision support systems are the most effective software tools. Positive or Descriptive discipline is an area of study that tries to describe peoples’ action (Ramsay, M. and Spiller, 1997). Kinds of decisions that need a theory 1) Choice under uncertainty This is the heart of decision theory. Procedure is from back in the 17th century and is today known as Expected value. Its idea is that when faced with more than one action where each gives more than one outcome of different probabilities, a person should look at all the possible outcomes whether negative or positive and the probable result of each action and multiply the two for an expected value. Action which should be chosen should be the one giving rise to highest expected total value (Harland, 2002). A classic example is that of Pascal’s Wager. Although there are criticisms of this argument, believing or not believing in God has infinite rewards therefore no reason to prefer one to another .This is because both the possibilities of the reward for not believing and believing in God is infinite (Hoggett, 1987). 2) Competing decision makers This is whereby making a decision is difficult because one has to consider how other people will react to their decision. This is mainly concerned with the choice that should be made when various actions lead to outcomes which are reasonable at different times (Warr, 1993). 3) Intertemporal choice This is an area a choice where various actions result to outcomes realized at different times. For example if someone wins a lottery they could go on an expensive holiday which gives immediate pleasure, the same person could invest in a pension scheme that could give them an income later in future. Considering all factors affecting the decision such a person could take, human behavior really goes against predictions of prescriptive decision theory (Weeks, 1997). References Berkowitz, L.; Parke, R.D.; Leyens, J.P.; West, S. and Sebastian, J. (1978) ‘Experiments on the reactions of juvenile delinquents to filmed violence’ in L.A. Hersov; M. Berger and D. Shaffer (eds) Aggression and anti-social behaviour in childhood and adolescence. Oxford: Pergamon. Berthoud, R. (1998) The Incomes of Ethnic Minorities. Colchester: Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex. Berthoud, R. (1999) Young Caribbean men and the labour market: a comparison with other ethnic groups. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation/ York Publishing Services. Connor DF, Steingard RJ, Anderson JJ, Melloni Jr RH (2002) Gender differences in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Psychiatry Hum Devel 33: 279–294 Elgar FJ, Knight J,Worrall GJ, Sherman G (2003) Attachment characteristics and behavioural problems in rural and urban juvenile delinquents. Child Psychiatry Hum Devel 34:35–48. Elliott, D.S.; Huizinga, D. and Morse, B. (1986) ‘Self-Reported Violent Offending – A Descriptive Analysis of Juvenile Violent Offenders and Their Offending Careers.’ Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 1, pp.472-514. Diclemente, R. J., Hansen, W. B., & Ponton, L. E. (1996). Handbook of adolescent health risk behaviour. New York, Plenum Press. Field, T. (1979). Infants born at risk: behaviour and development. New York, SP Medical & Scientific Books. Glendinning A (2002) Self-esteem and smoking in youth – muddying the waters? J Adolesc 25:415 Goldstein, H. (1990) Problem-Oriented Policing, New York: McGraw-Hill. Gorsuch, R.L. and Butler, M.C. (1976) ‘Initial Drug Abuse: A Review of Predisposing Social Psychological Factors.’ Psychological Bulletin, 83, pp.120-137. Haignere, C.S.; Freudenberg, N.; Silver, C.R.; Maslanka, H. and Kelley, J.T. (1997) ‘One method of assessing HIV/AIDS peereducation programs.’ Journal of Adolescent Health, 21, No 2. Harland P, Reijneveld SA, Brugman E, Verloove-Vanhorick SP, Verhulst FC (2002) Family factors and life events as risk factors for behavioural and emotional problems in children. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 11:176–184 Hoggett, P. and Hambleton, R. (1987) Decentralisation and democracy: Localising public services. Bristol: School of Advanced Urban Studies (SAUS), University of Bristol. Home Office (1997) Aspects of crime – gender. London: Home Office Research and Statistics Directorate. Hough, M. and Tilley, N. (1998a) Getting the Grease to the Squeak: research lessons for crime prevention. Crime Detection and Prevention Paper 85. London: Home Office. Jessor, R. 1992. Health risk behaviours in Adolescence: A Psychological Framework for Understanding and Action. Developmental Review, Vol.12. pp.374-390. Kelly, J. A. (1995). Changing HIV risk behaviour: practical strategies. New York, Guilford Press. Kempf, K. (1993) ‘The empirical status of Hirschi’s control theory’ in F. Adler and W.S. Laufer (eds) New directions in criminological theory: Vol. 4. Advances in criminological theory. New Brunswick, Canada: Transaction. Kolvin, I.; Miller, F.J.W.; Scott, D.M.; Gatzanis, S.R.M. and Fleeting, M. (1990) Continuities of Deprivation? Aldershot: Avebury. Larzelere, R.E. and Patterson, G.R. (1990) ‘Parental Management: mediator of the effect of socioeconomic status on early delinquency.’ Criminology, 28 (2) pp.301-324. Law, J. (1989) The early identification of language disability in children. London: Chapman and Hall. Learmonth, J. (1995) More Willingly to School? An independent evaluation of the Truancy and Disaffected Pupils GEST Programme. London: Department for Education and Employment. Light, R.; Nee, C. and Ingham, H. (1993) Car Theft: The Offender’s Perspective. Home Office Research and Planning Unit Report. London: HMSO Maung, N.A. (1995) Young people, victimisation and the police: British Crime Survey; experiences and attitudes of 12 to 15 year olds. Home Office Research Study 140. London: HMSO. McGuire, J. and Priestley, P. (1995) ‘Reviewing “What Works”: Past, Present and Future’ in J. McGuire (ed) What Works: Reducing Re-offending. Chichester: Wiley. McKay, S. (1993) ‘Research findings related to the potential of recreation in delinquency intervention.’ Trends, 30 (4), pp.27-30. Morash, M. and Rucker, L. (1989) ‘An exploratory study of the connection of mother’s age at childbearing to her children’s delinquency in four data sets.’ Crime and Delinquency, 35, pp.45-93. Patterson, G.R.; Forgatch, M.S.; Yoerger, K.L. and Stoolmiller, M. (1998)‘Variables that initiate and maintain an early-onset trajectory for juvenile offending.’ Development and Psychopathology, 10, pp.531-547. Ramsay, M. and Spiller, J. (1997) Drug Misuse declared in 1996: latest results from the British Crime Survey. Home Office Research Study 172. London: Home Office. Read, T. and Tilley, N. (2000) Not Rocket Science? Problem-solving and Crime Reduction. Crime Reduction. Research Series Paper 6. London. Satterfield, J.H. and Schell, A. (1997) ‘A prospective study of hyperactive boys with conduct problems and normal boys: Adolescent and adult criminality.’ Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, pp.1726-1735. Scott, S.; Knapp, M.; Henderson, J. and Maughan, B. (2001b) ‘Financial costs of social exclusion: follow up study of children into adulthood.’ British Medical Journal, 323 (7306) pp.191-193. Seeley, S.; Murray, L. and Cooper, P.J. (1996) ‘The outcome for mothers and babies of health visitor intervention’. Health Visitor, 69, No.4, pp.135-138. Shiner, M. and Newburn, T. (1996) Young People, Drugs and Peer Education: an evaluation of the Youth Awareness Programme. Paper 13, Drugs Prevention Initiative. London: Home Office. Taylor, P.; Crow, I.; Irvine, D. and Nicholls, G. (1999) Demanding Physical Activity Programmes for Young Offenders Under Probation Supervision. London: Home Office. Tittle, C.; Villemez, W. and Smith, D. (1978) ‘The Myth of Social Class and Criminality.’ American Sociological Review, 43 (6). United Nations Development Programme (2012) Powerful synergies Gender Equality, Economic Development and Environmental Sustainability, Graphics Service Bureau, Inc., New York, USA. Warr, M. (1993) ‘Parents, peers and delinquency.’ Social Forces, 72, pp.247-264. Weeks, A. and Laver-Bradbury, C. (1997) ‘Behaviour Modification in Hyperactive Children.’ Nursing Times, 93, No. 47. Werner, E.E. and Smith, R.S. (1982) Vulnerable but invincible. New York: McGraw Hill. Wilson, H. (1980) ‘Parental supervision: A neglected aspect of delinquency. ‘British Journal of Criminology, 20, pp.203-35. Yoshikawa, H. (1994) ‘Prevention as cumulative protection: Effects of earlyfamily support and education on chronic deliquency and its risks.’Psychological Bulletin, 115, pp.28-54. Read More