Drug and Alcohol Testing - Term Paper Example

?RUNNING HEAD: DRUG AND ALCOHOL TESTING Drug and Alcohol Testing School Table of Contents Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 1 Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Tests for Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Tests for Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Solution/Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Drug and Alcohol Testing Introduction Drugs and alcohol use cause problems in the family, society and at the workplace. Drinking alcohol at a moderate level may not affect the mental soundness of a person. However, the level of tolerance on the amount of alcohol that can be taken varies from person to person. Frequent drinking of alcoholic beverages or too much of them are bad for the health, can affect sound judgment and motor skills. Illegal drugs are not recommended for use except for medical and therapeutic use, and only with the advice of a physician. Illicit drug can affect mental soundness. Some workers use drug because it gives them a boost that makes them more productive, work at longer hours and do not feel the need to sleep. Long-term use of drugs and alcohol are not good for the physical health and the company. Laws prohibit taking of biological specimens from a person that would incriminate the latter. However, the laws of the different states allow drug testing under certain circumstances, although they vary in the process or implementation. The testing must not discriminate the applicants for a position, in that only some are tested but not others (Drug testing, 2011). The testing must also be with the consent and knowledge of the subject (Drug testing, 2011). Federal (e.g. Drug-Free Workplace Act of 1988) and state laws allow employers to test their prospective employees for drug and alcohol use (Drug testing, 2011). The importance of drug and alcohol testing cannot be overemphasized. Employers would want to prevent crime, sexual harassment, accidents caused by alcohol drinking, or other injuries inside company premises (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The US statistics reveal that alcohol abuse is the attributed cause of around 50 percent of vehicle injuries and the same estimate for industrial accidents (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). Drinking beyond the safe limit can cause problems, therefore the government must regulate alcohol consumption (Cornwall & Cornwall, 1993). Problem Whether or not the drug and alcohol testing procedures at present cannot be relied upon because they can be subjected to adulteration and tampering. Literature Review Tests for Alcohol There are generally five types of testing for alcohol, which are: a) urine tests for alcohol, b) blood alcohol tests or alcohol blood tests, c) alcohol breathalyzer tests (or alcohol breath tests and breath alcohol tests), d) saliva alcohol tests, and e) hair alcohol tests (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The most recent development in alcohol testing is the hair alcohol testing (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). It was only in 2008 that this method is able to detect alcohol (only used for drugs before) (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The Urine Alcohol Tests have the following features: the least expensive of all tests for alcohol, portable (can be used at home but results should be verified in the laboratory), regarded as an intrusive method, the result may not be accurate if alcohol is not ingested for a longer time before testing, can generally detect alcohol within a shorter period (e.g. one week) or a longer period if the subject is a regular drinker, must be temperature tested to ensure integrity of the sample, and can detect existence of alcohol in the system (it would take around two hours for alcohol to appear in the urine) (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The advantages of Urine Alcohol Testing are as follows: the reliability of the results is quite high, considered as relatively cheaper, the most flexible test (i.e. can determine alcohol, nicotine and drugs in the system), the most that can stand legal scrutiny as against other techniques (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). This method, however, have disadvantages that include the following: the urine sample can be diluted, adulterated or substituted by the subject; detection is generally limited from one to five days; regarded as invasive and can cause embarrassment to the subject; the specimen can become a bio-hazard if shipped or transferred to the laboratory; it requires two hours for alcohol to appear in the urine; and positive result does not reflect that subject is under the influence of alcohol at the time of testing (shows measurement within the day and the previous one, the special method EtG urine alcohol test is reliable up to 80 hours) (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The Blood Alcohol Testing is a method that measures the level of alcohol in the blood at the moment that the sample is taken from the subject (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The alcohol may be in the blood for a longer period of time. It cannot determine whether the subject has been drinking for some time or is an alcoholic (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). Some medicines can also affect the test results, therefore, a person undergoing the blood test is asked to inform the lab personnel of all the medications being taken, including blood-thinning medication (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). Any health problem pertaining to blood (e.g. clotting or bleeding problems) should also be communicated to the lab personnel before undergoing the procedure (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). This method of test has the following attributes: one of most precise in determining blood alcohol content or BAC, it is the most intrusive procedure at present, quite expensive, and not the most common method used due to cost and intrusiveness (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The Saliva Alcohol Test ascertains the presence of alcohol in the person’s saliva (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). This test provides a high degree of accuracy in estimating BAC (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The saliva method is more preferred in determining alcohol concentration than blood alcohol test (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The Saliva Test has the following features: costs higher than urine test but lesser than hair or blood test procedures, considered as relatively non-intrusive, gaining popularity as an alcohol test than other methods, a simple procedure but should be processed in the laboratory for accurate results, can detect the previous day’s alcohol use (and more reliable in detecting recent drug use), no standard concentration required which may vary according to the requirement, and more dependable in detecting methamphetamine and opiates but less dependable for THC or cannabinoids (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The recognized advantages of this technique include the following: the sample is taken under direct observation; the risk for messing the sample is very minimal; not invasive and provides no discomfort to the subject; it does not present a risk for infection, anemia or thrombosis; lower testing cost since lab personnel does not require special training for collecting the sample; the sample can be collected in most type of environments; capable of detecting alcohol use; and capable of detecting alcohol from 10 to 24 hours (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). Another method to determine alcohol in the system is the Breath Alcohol Testing (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The breathalyzer test, the most common method among this group of tests, has the following attributes: does not directly provide measurement of BAC; can indirectly measure approximate alcohol in the blood through the breath; can determine ethyl alcohol and other similarly structured molecules in alcoholic drinks; incorrect BAC readings can be taken if affected by cell phones, moisture, dirt, cigarette smoke, electrical waves, etc.; incorrect BAC readings can be had due to substances found in lacquer, gasoline, cleaning fluids and similar substances; incorrect BAC readings can be had if there is blood, vomit or alcohol in the mouth; thorough exercise, holding a breath or hyperventilation can also result to false readings; and lastly, improper use of breathalyzer or failure to calibrate can also cause erroneous BAC readings (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The Hair Alcohol Test is based on the scientific fact that hair absorbs ethyl glucuronide (EtG) and fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) as it grows (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The EtG and FAEE markers remain in the hair for an undetermined time until it is cut off (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). These markers are produced when alcohol is present in the bloodstream (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The greater the volume of alcohol is ingested into the body, the greater the number of markers will exist in the hair (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The reliability of hair testing has increased to a degree that it can now accurately determine alcohol level in the blood (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). Hair alcohol testing is predicted to become a major component of alcohol testing programs by employers in the future (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). It is commonly used in the UK (Hair Alcohol Testing, n.d.). Its window of detection is up to six months, not invasive and does not allow false positive results (Hair Alcohol Testing, n.d.). Through extensive studies, it is already possible to determine whether a person is a heavy drinker, social drinker or non-drinker (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The scalp portion of the hair can give the most accurate result for alcohol level (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The procedure would fail for a hair less than one-half of an inch (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). Hair gels, bleach or hair procedures though do not affect the results of this test (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The technique is not invasive but can give a precise history of alcohol use that stretch back for several months (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The attributes of this procedure are the following: costs a lot higher than urine test, non-intrusive, used more in drug detection in the past than alcohol detection, capable of detecting alcohol use for longer durations than other kinds of alcohol testing procedures, requires hair sample with length of about 1.5 inches, can detect accurately both alcohol and drugs individually or in combination, cannot be adulterated (no adulterant available in the market, direct observation during collection does away with cheating), and it reduces the need for another alcohol testing (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). The recognized disadvantages of this test are as follows: it is quite expensive, the procedure is still not known to many employers, cannot be used to detect alcohol with less than one inch long hair, cannot work for shaved head, will only work with scalp hair and not body hair, and procedure cannot be done on a single hair regardless of the length (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). Tests for Drugs There are many types of biological specimens used to detect the presence of drugs in the system, but the common types used are urine, oral fluid, sweat, hair follicle and blood (U.S. Department, n.d.). The drug testing for the workplace which is regulated for both the federal and private workers is urine testing (U.S. Department, n.d.). The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) mandates specific organizations to test personnel for the following classes of drugs: cocaine, amphetamines, marijuana, opiates and Phencyclidine (PCP) (U.S. Department, n.d.). However, organizations may include other substances in their drug testing, such as barbiturates, MDMA or ecstasy, hydrocodone (e.g. Lortab, Vicodin), methaqualone (e.g. Quaaludes), propoxyphene (e.g. Darvon), benzodiazepines (e.g. valium, Xanax, Librium, Serax, Rohypnol), and methadone (U.S. Department, n.d.). The present testing procedures are capable of detecting drugs even if the sample is adulterated, thus, cheating on the results would be extremely difficult (U.S. Department, n.d.). Extra care is also given in the collection sites and laboratories (U.S. Department, n.d.) so that accuracy can be attained. Highly trained drug testing personnel who collect urine samples at the workplace assure proper procedure compliance and that quality sample is taken (U.S. Department, n.d.). Certified laboratories can also take measurements on the pH, creatinine, specific gravity, etc. that would lend to the validity and reliability of the positive and negative results, as well as the deviation in the sample (U.S. Department, n.d.). Many organizations and some federal agencies (Department of Transportation) are mandated to utilize testing laboratories certified by the US Department of Health and Human Services (U.S. Department, n.d.). Moreover, the results from the testing laboratories are reviewed by Medical Review Officers (MROs) before being transmitted to the employer (U.S. Department, n.d.). MROs are licensed doctors (either Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of Osteopathy) who have sufficient knowledge on substance abuse disorders, and trained to assess positive results or related biomedical data (SAMHSA, 2007, as cited in U.S. Department, n.d.). The Saliva Alcohol Test has a limited capacity for drug detection (drugs and metabolites do not linger in the saliva for a longer time), and it is not very accurate for determining marijuana use (Why are U.S. companies, n.d.). Marijuana also can already be detected in oral fluids besides the common urine drug test (Drug Alcohol Test, 2006). Discussion At present, many laboratories offer drug testing and alcohol testing facilities and services. There are also kits that can be used at home. But for organizations and employers that require authentic results, certified laboratories with highly trained personnel and licensed evaluators must be availed of. The government regulatory agencies have a list of certified laboratories that are able to comply with the strict standards laid down for such testing. There are facilities with around 10,000 collection sites for both drug and alcohol testing (Employee Drug, 2010). A facility also offers programs for drug-free workplace to companies so that drug and alcohol testing (Employee Drug, 2010) can be properly managed and implemented at regular intervals. In some facilities, the integrity of the drug and alcohol drug test is enhanced by subjecting positive results to Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) technology, and reviewed by the MRO (Employee Drug, 2010). The alcohol breath test can be used for faster results. This can easily be applied to validate suspicion that drivers on the street have ingested alcoholic beverages. This can also be used in the workplace if suspicion of drinking within company premises is committed and within the working hours. But in order to be not discriminative, all employees will be subjected to the test. The saliva test may be the most convenient form besides the alcohol breath test. The sample is easy to take. Although the price is higher than that of a urine test, it does away with the tampering urine test may have. Saliva cannot be easily tampered with since the collecting personnel will be directly observing the subject during collection. It can also detect drug substances and alcohol usage. Urine drug test may cost from $25 to $75, which is usually shouldered by the employer, unless the employee tested positive (in this case, the employee may reimburse the employer provided there is earlier notice of reimbursement) (U.S. Department, n.d.). The amount would vary depending on the number of employees to be tested or other circumstances (U.S. Department, n.d.). The costs for the different testing methods vary according to the complexity or the simplicity of the procedure. Facilities though may charge the same amount for both alcohol and drug testing such as the one in Glasgow that charges ?68.50 for both categories (Glasgow Medical, 2011). Urine testing kits cost from $3.77 to $7.95, hair testing kits range from $64.99 to $89.95, and saliva test kits have a price of $10.95 to $12.95 (Drugs and Alcohol, n.d.). Solution/Recommendation The different methods of testing can be used for different purposes and needs of employers and organizations. In drug testing, the urine method is still the recommended standard. Hair test is said to be the most reliable of all the methods because the sample cannot be affected and the results can be reliable. However, the cost of this procedure is high. Moreover, individuals that have their hair totally shaved cannot be subjected to the test. It is better then for an organization to hire the services of a testing facility that can offer varied services, with the most cheapest and reliable being used first such as urine testing (can be used for both drug and alcohol detection). It is only when a valid result cannot be attained due to the limitations of the procedure that other methods be used. It is important though that the facility is accredited by the government and has a licensed physician who could validate the results. Conclusion Drug and alcohol testing procedures are reported to be not foolproof with the proliferation of adulterating devices or they can be subjected to tampering. Adulterating substances are openly sold in the market. There are also devices that contain synthetic urine that can be used even with the urine collecting personnel observing the male subject. These substances can affect the results of the tests. However, these lapses may not occur if a strict procedure is implemented in the collection site. A certain degree of error is also recognized in some testing procedures. Therefore, a stricter process is being implemented by some laboratories, such as retesting of subjects who yielded non-negative results. Additional testing methods are also being introduced in addition to the commonly used procedures. And for the hair testing procedure, its effectiveness has already been applied to alcohol detection since 2008. But in the present line up of testing methods, it can be said that they can provide accurate and reliable results. Employers and organizations can then select which procedure to utilize for their workplace according to their needs or functions of the workers. References Cornwall, A. & Cornwall, V. (1993). Drugs, alcohol and mental health. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: Drugs and Alcohol Hair Testing. (n.d.). Drugs and Alcohol Hair Testing Guide. 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Retrieved 17 July 2011, from http://workplace.samhsa.gov/WPWorkit/pdf/drug_testing_facts_and_stat_fs.pdf Read More