British Colonization - Essay Example

? British Colonisation of the and Number of the Teacher’s British Colonisation Introduction The British Empire wasexpanded to become one of the largest in history, completely encircling the globe. Melvin E. Page observes that from this extensive British colonisation over several continents, emerged the notion that the ‘sun never sets on the British empire’. The details of the empire’s history are complex, revealing “ever-changing patterns of colonial expansion and control of non-European territories”, states Page (75). Early British colonialism dates back to the 12th century English conquest and occupation of Ireland. The maritime adventures of the 16th century naval and merchant seamen were responsible for the extension of English economic power throughout the Atlantic to North America and the Caribbean, to promote trade for the home country. “Obsession with maintaining colonial production led to policies that encouraged the development of labour in the new territories” argues Page (75). Consequently, religious dissidents in England such as the Puritans were subjected to unfavourable treatment which compelled them to flee to the newly discovered land of America by the 15th century. Similarly, indentured labourers were sent away from the British Isles to distant colonies, while slave trade from Africa continued to be carried over several centuries, for subjugation and slavery. The British colonization of India along with trading rivalry from other European powers resulted in their extending their mercantile principles to India by the early 17th century. By the 18th century, British imperialism spread to Australia as well. In the 19th century, Africa, New Zealand and Canada were brought under British colonization. In the 20th century radical changes took place in the British Empire, besides its separation into dominion and colonial divisions. By the mid-20th century, massive decolonizations led to the achievement of independence by many British colonial areas, although some marginal regions remained in the colonial fold. Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate British Colonization across the globe, over several centuries of British Imperialism. Colonization and Expansion of the First British Empire James A. Williamson observes that because there was no scope for ambitious land expansion by the British, colonization had to be undertaken overseas. English sea-power primarily emerged and developed during the Middle Ages, and by the Tudor era (1485-1603) seafaring took lasting hold of the imagination of the people. Thus, British colonization and expansion must take into account the beginnings of sea-power, and its development driven by geographical, political, and economic factors (Williamson 3). The first British empire was established in the Americas between the 16th to 18th centuries by emigrants fleeing from Britain to escape the religious rule and harassment. Thus, by the early 19th century, Britain formed an empire spanning the seas by emigration to the newly discovered land of America which was the homeland of native Indians since ancient times. Gradually, “multiplication of the colonial stock began to transform British North America from a fringe of maritime possessions into a territorial nation” (Williamson 6). In South Africa, the same process resulted in Cape Colony being taken over as a predominantly naval station on the British route to the East. In Australia, the coasts occupied for a distinctive administrative purpose drew immigrants who spread into the interiors. British expansion into New Zealand took place against the wishes of the imperial government, states Williamson (6). Thus, the four distinct regions of North America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand were taken over by the growing population of British immigrants who overflowed into unoccupied borderlands. Establishment of the Second British Empire Establishment of the Second British Empire included the expansion of British colonial rule in India from the early 19th century, followed by Africa. Colonization was not because of increasing immigration into these nations, but by British military force. The acquisition of Hong Kong and the opening of Chinese treaty ports are an example for the continued maritime expansion carried out, with the British occupation of trading stations, naval bases, and similar strategic points. Thus, the second British Empire was established like the first British colonization, as originally maritime in nature, driven by ambitious seafaring and with the purpose of commercial enterprise (Williamson 6). Fig.1a. The Expansion of British Colonization from 1713-1914 (Ozedweb, 2012) Fig.1b. (Ozedweb, 2012) Fig.1c. (Ozedweb, 2012) Figs.1a, 1b, and 1c. above reveal the expansion of the British Empire from early 18th to early 20th centuries, out of the total of over four to five centuries of colonization from the 16th to the 20th centuries. In 1914, the Asian subcontinent along with India, Pakistan, Burma, most of Canada, North America, parts of Africa including South Africa, the whole of Australia, as well as New Zealand are marked in blue to denote the colonised areas, along with other smaller regions. Fig.2. British Colonization History (Mayfield, 2008)of Br Similar to Fig.1, the map in Fig.2 above includes the colonial conquests of New Zealand, Australia and Canada as part of the British Empire, because each of the three colonies were predominantly “dependent upon the British Crown until after World War II” (Mayfield, 2008). The network of British colonies signified in red colour in the map, continue to exist today as the Commonwealth, the participant countries providing mutual economic and political cooperation (Mayfield, 2008). “Ideas and material circumstances in the mother country thus lie at the roots of the second British expansion” (Williamson 6). The material circumstances relate to the Industrial and Agricultural Revolutions. From the late 15th to the 18th century, Columbus and Vasco da Gama led overseas explorations, oceanic trade increased, use of exotic raw materials and products became routine, manufacture for distant markets increased, long-distance shipping was improved, and the import of large quantities of gold and silver made capitalistic organization on a large scale possible. Simultaneously, the Renaissance, of which the geographical discoveries formed an essential part, resulted in greater liberty of thought and awakening of intellect, and the foundation was prepared for inventions to be created. Thus, unprecedented in the history of the white races, creativity and engineering skills took root among the people. “All these factors intensified in the course of the eighteenth century” (Williamson 7). During the 18th century, Great Britain and France were the main ocean-trading countries, with the Dutch a little behind them. British and French manufacturers fulfilled most of the demands of North America, the West Indies and India, and indirectly of Spanish and Portuguese America. They also penetrated the more distant markets of China and the rest of Asia, and were long established in the Levant and the nearer East. Increased supply of goods were required by the increasing population of North America, for example the potteries of Staffordshire supported this market. However, “the most remarkable growth of trade was with the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the earth” (Williamson 7), for both raw materials such as cotton and dyestuffs, as well as consumables like sugar, tea and coffee. In order to develop an item that could be traded for these products, cotton cloth suitable for the tropical regions was manufactured in Britain. Significantly, the Industrial Revolution began not with changes in an existing industry, but with the development of a new industry in cotton. On the other hand, Page (79) argues that British colonization promoted Britain’s commercial interests. Thus, British sovereignty over colonized territories emphasized the enforcement of trade and exchange rules, subordinating the interests of the colonies to those of the home country. There is little doubt that a great deal of importance on economic forces for the preservation of the British Empire was predominantly responsible for the nation’s imperial drive. Once under British rule, the chief factor that explained the essential operation of the empire was “the undeniable fact that most of the indigenous peoples within the empire were not Europeans” observes Page (79). In fact all the people under British colonization including Asians, Native Americans, Aborigines and Africans were ‘black people’ ruled by whites. This also relates to the development of the slave trade for the first empire along with its later extension to the Indian Ocean including the indentured servitude of labourers from Malaysia and India in South Africa. This approach of race and racism as a core element in understanding British colonialism, though controversial, has numerous supporters particularly in the former colonies. It is also related to the argument that British commercial interest in the slave trade promoted the financing of the Industrial Revolution in England. However, “such views were not willingly accepted in the British consciousness” (Page 79). Another perspective of the practical operations of the British Empire underscores the significance of class rather than race, and on the associated issues of status and rank within the working of the Empire machinery. This view is related to the hierarchical nature of British society, “which in many ways was not just replicated in the colonies, it also flourished there” (Page 79). This was possible because many English subjects of ordinary means and status were accorded positions of authority in the colonized countries, based on merit or notable achievements. Thus, the British Empire helped to expand opportunities for English men and women, while at the same time emphasizing the essentially stratified nature of British society. Page (80) argues that this accounts for the “long devotion of the British public to the existence of empire and to the collective memory of a glorious imperial past”. Britain’s efforts in the 17th century in colonising India, Australia, etc. created conflicts with European rivals such as France, Denmark and Netherlands. This led to the first great dispute over Empire, the ‘Seven Years’ War’. The British victory “marked a new phase in its colonialism, with India and the East its greatest focus” (Page 78), and initiated the expansion of the second British Empire. After the successful revolt of colonial settlers in the American revolution, the first phase of British imperialism was concluded, although it continued further until the United States succeeded in defending its independence in the war of 1812, and specifically after British defeat in the Battle of New Orleans in 1814. This was followed by India becoming the most important focus of the British Empire, with a renewed East India Company working for both royal and national interests in the subcontinent, and its relationships with Africa and Asia. Many people particularly in England defended the imperial developments during this period, as having a beneficial effect on all the people who came in contact with British commercial and political power. Others emphasized the rights and privileges of the English regardless of where they may have settled across the globe. Both these viewpoints served to promote further colonial expansion, “moving out of Australia into New Zealand, and eastward into Southeast Asia” (Page 78). An example is the ensuring of British control over the strategic island of Singapore. Through the 19th century, a great deal of British colonial policy was focused on India, which was considered as the jewel of the empire. Trade routes to India were established to sustain British commercial ties; similarly trade with China was established to maintain the economic well-being of the centre of the British Empire in India, and to sustain British colonialism in India. The English colonists in North America were virtually independent of the parent country of Great Britain. The most significant restriction they were subjected to was the establishment of a trade monopoly by the home government on the basis of the Navigation Acts. Unlike other British colonies such as in India, Africa, etc., the territory in North America was more suitable for settlement rather than for exploitation. Hence, the British colonists in America tended to reside permanently there. Increasing oversease trade and colonial consumption helped to stimulate the Industrial Revolution, which in turn due to Great Britain’s increased technological superiority as well as greater desire for markets and raw materials, promoted and supported colonization to a greater extent (The Columbia Encyclopedia 11284). The American Revolution in the latter half of the 18th century resulted in political upheaval with English settlers in thirteen colonies in North America combining forces to break free from the British Empire, and joining together to form the United States of America. Due to the impact of the American Revolution on other English settlers in the empire, in the second half of the 19th century, Britain began to extend locally responsible government to some of their colonies, particularly the Cape colony in southern Africa, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. The main difference between these colonies and those of India, Singapore and other imperial outposts were the significant populations of English Europeans who were permitted to essentially govern themselves. From 1902 these colonies were managed by “a separate Dominions Office, distinct from the British government’s Colonial Office” (Page 78). This reflects the fact that after the 1880s, the British colonized many more regions, particularly in Africa. Changes that occurred in the British Empire in the 20th century were partly due to the major global events of the 1900s such as World War I, the Great Depression, and World War II, each of which had an impact on the empire. Although each event had unique implications, the main outcome was the drawing of “more of the indigenous people of the empire into greater engagement with their British colonial overlords”, states Page (79). However, worldwide viewpoints on the practice and propriety of colonialism as put forth by the League of Nations, and subsequently the United Nations, served to undermine the confidence the British had held in their colonial enterprise for centuries. By 1960, this was accepted as increasing change in public opinion, resulting in extensive decolonization, and the achievement of independence by many British colonial territories in the era following World War II. This decolonization reveals an opposition to the continuing significance of economic forces and trade policies in the preservation of the British Empire, although these reasons had formed the early basis for Britain’s imperial drive. Page (79) reiterates that included in this group of colonial territories were some of the West Indian regions which had been brought under British control since the first commercial expansions of English power in the 17th century. Conclusion This paper has highlighted British colonization across the globe. The First British Empire was established by Britain’s colonization of the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa during the 16th to 18th centuries. After Britain won the 7 Year War with other European powers in conflict over British attempts to colonize India, and also America achieved independence from the control of its motherland, Great Britain, the first phase of British imperialism came to an end. Subsequently, for establishing the Second British Empire, India became the prime target for British colonial forces. Britain’s East India Company in India played a vital role in fulfilling the interests of the home nation. Similarly, colonization of other regions of the African continent was undertaken. Thus, the growing populations of British immigrants colonized and consequently expanded British territories in the new countries they invaded. Further, they exploited to the full the increasing local opportunities of the host countries, promoting trade and commerce for the benefit of their home country. Williamson (6) supports this view, and adds that the complex structure of the second colonization involves political, economic and sociological dimensions. Several advantages to the host countries are believed to have occurred due to British colonization, such as improvement and development in several spheres. However, the disadvantages of British imperialism such as natives’ losses pertaining to ownership, land, traditional culture and way of life, together with enforced taxes, relegation to subordinate class, and deepening poverty levels distinctly indicate that deliberate imposition of foreign rule and oppression benefits only the colonisers. Works Cited Mayfield, James. Detailed Map of British Colonization History. 2008. 21 July 2012. Ozedweb. British Empire. 2012. 21 July 2012. Page, Melvin E. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia. California: ABC-CLIO Publications, 2003. The Columbia Encyclopedia. Colonization. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Edition 6. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009. Williamson, James A. A short history of British expansion. New York: Macmillan, 1931. Read More