A Rise of New Dangerous and Violent Female Offenders - Research Paper Example

Question 4). A Critical Discussion of the Rise of the New ‘Dangerous’ and ‘Violent’ Female Offender Introduction The increase in feminism movements and women’s ability to make it in the fields that were male-dominated has led to a situation where the women have penetrated the field of serious and violent crimes such as murder and frauds. Through numerous efforts, women have been able to emancipate themselves from the roles that the society had given them such as passive and subservient individuals who had no tendencies to perpetrate crimes. However, Women have risen in every form of profession, an advent that has made them engage in the perpetration of serious crimes that were previously associated with men. The number of female offenders has consistently risen in the previous four decades (Koons-Witt and Schram 2006, p.126). This paper is going to discuss the rise of the new female offender. Discussion Change in nature of female offences The nature of the crimes committed by women has changed drastically from the more traditional trivial to more serious ones, which involve the use of violence. The main reason for the emergence of new forms of crimes is the existence and advancement of feminist movements and gender equality. These movements have compelled women especially of middle and high-class societies to involve themselves in the commission of economic crimes to meet their family needs (Gender-Based Theories n.d. p.2). On the other hand, lower-class women have engaged in the use of violence in crimes through girl-gangs or use of accomplices. Moreover, female offenders have enhanced the prostitution profession to undetectable levels. Women incarcerated due to perpetration of violent offences have increased in an unprecedented scale. Traditionally, women were perpetrating crimes of a less serious nature such as prostitution and child abuse. These crimes have changed to a situation where the women are committing infanticides, homicides and an advanced prostitution. According to Sanders (2007, p.75), the crime of prostitution has taken a new dimension, as women are able to work in their own premises, offer escort services visit men in hotel rooms or rent apartment where they receive customers. Other venues for the perpetration of new forms of this old age profession are building which are established as massage parlors ostensibly, but in actual sense, they are brothels. Moreover, According to Zaplin (2008, p.15) women have been able to engage in masculine crimes such as fraud, embezzlement and larceny. The issue of women and crime has not been a major topic in the society due to lack of sufficient research on crimes committed by women. This is because most of the female offenders used to commit their crimes in the domestic setting. However, this apparent lack of research on female offenders is going to bring problems to the society as women assume similar roles with men in the corporate world (Flowers 1995, p.22). The apparent lack of emphasis by criminalists on female offenders has made the society become less aware of the female crimes, which have increased. Particularly, the rise of a new generation of female offenders has mainly occurred in the United States. This is because United States is one of the countries where empowerment of women has occurred in a multifaceted manner. According to Holmes (2012, p.3) Female offenders arrested have committed crimes such as murder, frauds, use of violence in property crimes and excessive abuse of drugs. However, unlike men, most of the female offenders usually commit their crimes following victimization from the family or from within the society. These offenders have had a prior experience of physical, sexual or emotional abuse. Moreover, report made by Cauffman (2012, p.134) shows that crimes in which female offenders use violence are when they are retaliating or when they are resisting further aggression. The emergence of girl-gangs is another indicator of the nature of change of female crimes. These gangs are ruthless and go to any extent when they want to achieve their criminal goals. In the light of this, women offenders usually do not commit crimes on their own but rather in the company of a male or a female accomplice. Crimes committed by female offenders on their own are rare. Research by Koons-Witt and Schram (2006, p.133), on the crimes that female offenders commit has brought out interesting statistics. Crimes that are committed alone are of a domestic nature and may involve murder and use of violence. Crimes committed by a lone female offender mostly go undetected. On the other hand, the crimes that involve accomplices often take the form of professionalism such as frauds and embezzlement in case of a male accomplice. On the same note, crimes involving female accomplices are violent in nature as is the case of girl-gangs and poisoning clients in brothel in order to steal from them. Most of the accomplices that women use when committing their crimes are boyfriends, husband, acquaintances or friends. Women who are perceived as masculine type commit crimes that assume a predatory nature. Moreover, these women are revered for the commission of crimes, which are serious in nature. Criminal women tend to join other female criminals in committing such crimes. Increase in the number of women offenders According to Koons-Witt and Schram (2006, p.125), the second half of the 20th century saw an escalation in the number of female offenders. This increase serves to show that women crime is a problem that is going beyond control. Moreover, the number of female offenders arrested in the period between 1980 and 2000 increased by 32% whereas those imprisoned had increased by around 160%. The nature of the crimes in which these female offenders were arrested for, involved violence and numerous instances of drug abuse and alcohol. In addition, some of these female offenders have been arrested for welfare frauds, fake advertising, and product defects. In the study carried out by Poe-Yamagata and Butts (2012, p.3), theorists have formulated their beliefs based on recent statistics that show how women are using the opportunities that they have gained through female empowerment to perpetrate crime. According to Adler, (Poe-Yamagata and Butts 2012, p.16), female offenders arrested due to major crimes increased exponentially towards the end of the 20th century due to increase in liberalization. Modern female crimes are forgery, embezzlement, theft and fraud. These crimes have escalated whereby in 1960’s reported crimes involving fraud and larceny were 17% and rose to around 43% after three decades However, female criminality has observed that female offences that are recorded are lower than offences committed by males. This is due to the crafty and professional nature that crimes committed by female offenders have assumed. The crime of prostitution has advanced to a situation where investigations into the matter, fail to yield the desired results. Due to lack of emphasis on female offenders, the society has become less aware that female offences have become more violent and have escalated to dire levels. Property crimes whereby women are the main perpetrators have escalated since the end of the Second World War, according to Potter (2006, p.113). Characteristics of the new female offenders The study by Schwartz and Steffensmeier ( n.d., p.49), has indicated that economic rationality is a major characteristic of the new serious and violent female offenders. New economic motives for commission of crimes are against the hitherto held presumptions by the society through traditions that women who were criminals suffered from severe sexual deprivation and were evil. These societies labeled these women as irrational and unstable. This irrationality was linked to their psychological and biological nature. However, female offenders are usually economically motivated as opposed to previous beliefs. There is a need to rethink the motives behind female offences as economic rather than driven by irrationality and passion. Most of the crimes that are being committed by the new female offenders perfectly show that there are economic motives as women are also in the struggle to emancipate themselves financially. The nature of commission of crimes by new female offenders is heterogeneous. The crimes that are committed by female offenders differ from the ones committed by male offenders in terms of seriousness, scope and frequency. Women commit violent crimes in less frequency than male offenders do. However, aforementioned statistics seem to predict that given the rate at which females are gaining access to opportunity structures, their new form of offences will take a homogenous nature according to Cote (2002, p.21). In her book ‘Criminological Theories: Bridging the Past to the Future’ Cote (2002, p.160), indicates that new forms of female offenders are pervasively deviant. Female offenders are often stigmatized following the perception that they are spoilt or abnormal. This is because previously female offenders were rare and their crimes were overhyped by the society as opposed to those of their male counterparts. The recent developments such as the increase of female criminals have led to the view of increasing deviance. This is because the women have not only deviated through the commission of a crime but also they have broken societal rules. These views have led to severe punishment for female offenders According to Government Equalities Office (2010, p.4), female offenders are characterized by an abusive history. Moreover, the situation is aggravated upon imprisonment of the female offenders. This is because women in prison are at a risk of sexual and physical abuse more than the males offenders are. Most female prisoners report to be abused before being admitted to a prison. These women had been physically or sexually abused as young girls and in some instances, the abuses persisted into adulthood. The main perpetrators of physical, sexual and emotional abuses that wreck the life of female offenders and condemn them to a life full of confrontations with the law are close relatives or individuals known to the victims who instill fear in their victims to an extent that they remain at large Reasons for escalation of offences by female offenders There are many reasons why the new form of offences that include murder and excessive use of violence have emerged. The emergence equality between men and women in almost all facet of societal life is because of an avalanche of feminist movements and the levels of stress in women especially of middle and high class. This is due to lack of opportunities that men get especially in the workplace despite equality in achievements between men and women and the rigorous nature of trying to juggle motherhood, for some women, and work. There is a conflict between the traditional role of women, which entailed a life of privacy in the domestic setting to modern success, which compels women to join in the race for corporate success and economic empowerment. Moreover, the women are expected to lead in corporate matters while still maintaining their marriages and families (Theories of Female Criminality n.d., para.15). There are numerous cases where the opportunities for women to succeed are blocked. Despite having promising beginnings like their male peers, women are often faced by numerous obstacles along the way, which thwart their efforts towards success. These impediments are limitations in accessing higher education, inadequate vacancies in available jobs and the internalization of norms by the society, that tend to devalue femaleness. In the light of this, women in lower class experience higher stress due to the aforementioned factors, which have escalated to a level that is compelling them to engage in serious and violent crimes in pursuit of economic goals (Theories of Female Criminality n.d., para.16). Crime opportunities are always available. Through the increased number of societal constraints on women, there has been an emergence of women with low self-control. These women have been able to seize illegal opportunities in order to meet some economical ends. Moreover, through the traditional female roles of nurturers and caretakers and situations imposed on women by the society, the women assumed qualities, which deterred them from engaging in criminal activities, and tendencies that could cause harm to others. In addition, the women are inherently afraid of losing contacts with loved ones. Traditional thoughts on women purported that women had an increased opportunity to gain financially from crimes such as illicit sex and prostitution. This leads them to decrease their engagement in crimes that involve the use of violence (Cote 2002, p.91). According to the research done by Potter ( 2006, p.107), race has an influence in female crime and black women are linked to crime because of facing a share of historical injustices. These include a slave tradition and high rates of unemployment for black women. Although white women have not had a bad history, their professional achievements have led them to engage in professional crimes such as fraud and embezzlement. Girl-gangs that were previously unheard of have emerged together with female violence because of gender equality. Women have become inclined to crime because of being associated with work values, which are masculine. Moreover, the work place has been a venue for crime opportunities away from home. The possibilities of women benefiting from prostitution have been reduced following the imposition of laws that tend to curb this old age profession. Consequently, female offenders, having seen limited chances of engaging in the crime of prostitution have engaged in crimes that involve the use of violence. Male offenders were previously committing these crimes. The nature in which prostitution has evolved makes it hard for governments to control the crime. This is because; there have been the development of technology in the prostitution field through forms such as massage parlors, which has shifted the male domination of this profession through the emergence of call-girl services (Sanders 2007, p.75). Gender norms and social control are no more effective in stopping women from engaging in crime. Through societal advancements, and equality campaigns in almost all major societal aspects, the women have been introduced in the field of professional criminal activities. Women are also being involved in activities such as drug dealing and fraud. The female offenders are taking great risks in order to sustain their relationship. Crimes such as embezzlement are conducted in order to maintain their families whereas men commit crimes of such nature in order to maintain their status and for competitive advantage. Moreover, the society expects an individual to achieve several goals. However, individuals experience several impediments towards achieving these goals. This is because not all individuals have access to means that are legitimate in the achieving these goals (Cote 2002, p.28). Through the aforementioned social expectations and the pressure for a girl to make it following numerous campaigns on female empowerment, a female is expected to achieve the feat of marriage and be successful in life. Failure of getting the legitimate means to help in achieving these goals leads to illegitimate means, which have incorporated the use of violence and the perpetration of serious crimes. Another reason for the escalation of crimes by female offenders is that they engage in crime due to lack of conventional activities and a deviant company. In the absence of a convectional model of a family, a woman tends to be disintegrated socially which leads to development of antisocial tendencies (Cote 2002, p.332). Various Theories Explaining Female Criminality Early theories Early theories seeking to explain the concept of female criminality focus on psychological and physiological and not factors like social and economic factors. According to these theories, women tendencies to commit crimes are based on biological assumptions on woman’s nature and not as a part of their response to certain social conditions. The existing social structure in which the woman assumes a subordinate role seems to be partly acceptance of the early theories. Moreover, the lack of existence of substantial research on the topic of female offenders shows that the society focuses on early theories in explaining their criminal tendencies. This lack of research on female criminality has led to a lack of important statistics in explaining and predicting the trends of female crimes (Theories of Female Criminality n.d., para.4). Cesar Lombroso formulated his theory on the beginning of 20th century through his beliefs that crime was resulting from biological atavism. He purported that female had lower rates of crimes because fewer women exhibited atavistic anomalies (Cashdan 2003, p.113). However, the few women who had these anomalies were not selected by men and therefore could not reproduce an advent that escalated their tendency to commit crimes due to sexual deprivation. In the light of this, Lombroso ranked these women, as the lowest in his hierarchy. The theorist believed that these women were calculating, cold and amoral. Moreover, he believed that the adaptability of these women had superior adaptability to physical surroundings and higher chances of survival. These women were able to endure physical and mental pain. In addition, these women had masculine traits, were irritability, and had unstable characteristics and excess sexual desire. The theory by Lombroso is the most predominant early theory on women criminology and seems to persist in the societal context in which female crime has escalated due to a lack of categorization of female offenders outside the physiological and psychological realms (Theories of Female Criminality n.d., para.4-6). In his work on female criminality, Otto Pollak presented different views on female crime. Otto Pollak claimed that women committed as frequently as men did. However, women committed their crimes in a masked or hidden manner. Pollak suggested that the women were having greater opportunities of committing hidden crime due to their professions, which were not very open to public scrutiny. These roles were roles such as mothers, teachers and homemakers whereby the women would have conducts that were undetectable such as infanticide and poisoning without attracting the attention of the public (Pollak 1978, p.34). Pollak highlighted that women had the inherent characteristics of being deceitful. Through increased socialization, women were expanding their psychological deceit by being trained by other women to conceal their natural processes. These included the ability to fake orgasms, repress sexual desire and their frustrations. Pollak claimed that men who engaged in extramarital affairs were innocent victims of blackmailing women. The work by Pollak on female criminals is very important, as he was the first scholar in female criminality to posit that female criminality was because of emancipation of women from social bonds. He suggested that the increase in education opportunities and struggle for equality for women would have eventualities such a females committing crimes that were more violent as opposed to their traditional hidden crimes. This scenario exists today and recent trends suggest that in future there are high odds of women surpassing men in commission of crime (Pollak 1978, p.12). Modern theories Labeling Theory In the modern society, the definition of crime tends to change. Events that were crimes may be legalized. An example of this is the consumption of alcohol whereby there are frequent changes in the age limit; moreover, permissible locations are often changed. In the light of this, the labeling theory shows that activities become criminal when others have labeled them as criminal. Even with the categorization of crime, not all individuals who engage in law breaking are christened criminals. Through this theory, it is evident that to become a criminal does not depend on individual behavior but the reactions of other individuals upon the commission of the crime. One of important factor in labeling theory is the construction of deviance in the society over time (Theories of Female Criminality n.d., para.28-33). The criminal behavior of an individual is shaped by continuous stigmatization of that individual through numerous societal labels. In the light of this, an individual conforms to the label of the criminal upon the labeling of that individual by the society as a criminal. This theory highlights two types of deviance, which are primary and secondary deviance. The former occurs upon commission of a crime by an individual. The behavior that leads to the commission of this crime is caused by social, psychological or biological factors. However, this act is not taken as being a part of the identity of the individuals. On the other hand, secondary deviance involves the imposition of the criminal label on the individual. Ones the label of a criminal has been imposed, this becomes a core part of their identity. Deviance occurs as a process of transforming one self’s identity. Following the imposition of the label through secondary deviation, the individual participation in both formal and informal activities becomes curtailed. Moreover, the criminal is not able to secure jobs and this leads him/her to associate with individuals facing the same predicament, which culminates in the perpetration of even more severe crimes. The labeling theory perfectly describes the predicament faced by female offenders particularly, the prostitutes. The findings from Theories of Female Criminality (n.d., para.28-33) are replicated by Fitch (2010, p.19) who highlights that once female sex offenders are arrested and labeled prostitutes, through secondary deviance the female offender becomes compel to engage is such a crime as a lifestyle. Consequently, businesses are unlikely to hire female who cite prostitution as one of their work experiences. Liberation theory Theories of Female Criminality (n.d., para.39-42) indicate that according to Freda Adler, a modern theorist on female offenders, the recent escalation in female offences has resulted of women emancipation and increasing rate of participation in the workplaces. This new light has led to Adler’s work receiving wide attention due to its opinions on female criminality. According to the theorist, the new female offender has emerged because of liberation and it is important for relevant authority to intervene before the matter gets out of hand. Adler has formulated a liberation theory in which she purports that feminist movements have led to changes in women status in domains such as marriage, family, social positions and employment. In previous time, social rigidities made the woman to be viewed as an oppressed creature, albeit having equal aspirations with men. These structural rigidities made women to lack power to attain their goals using legitimate means. In their quest for success, the women had to relentlessly seek status mostly through men and this was through conforming to the expectations instituted by men. Although liberation provided enormous gains to women, the movement also exposed them into crime, as they were looking for economic and employment opportunities (Cote 2002, p.153). The competition between women and men in the work place characterized by legitimacy went hand in hand with an attempt by the female criminal to assert her position in the field of crime. As more women became soldiers, lawyers and doctors among other legitimate careers, so did other women become terrorists, embezzlers, burglars, and forgers. The new female offender had skills and aspirations that are necessary for participation in major crimes, which constitute higher rewards financially (Cote 2002, p.126). In her developments, Adler dismissed psychological and biological theories of other criminologists on the grounds of being inconclusive in explaining female criminality. Moreover, this theorist adduced that through the process of socialization, boys and girls had been shaped into the masculine and feminine roles through a system of rewards and punishments that was highly complicated. Boys were encouraged to be aggressive whereas girls were expected to be soft. As these boys and girls grew up, there was a tendency to be humiliated following non-conformance with the expectations of the society about femininity and masculinity. These forces are crucial in explaining criminal behavior rather than biological disparities that exist between the two genders. Moreover, the physical differences that existed were reduced significantly through the availability of modern weapons. The rise in the new offenders can be attributed to acquired masculine traits and skills through exposure to a male dominated society and the chances of a bright opportunity. The assumptions made by Adler are that the ambitions and needs of women are similar to those of men and as their position in the society near that of men, then their tendency towards crime increase (Cote 2002, p.65). Conclusion The offences that are committed by women have taken a serious and dangerous nature. This is despite the stigmatization that female offenders have been facing from the society; in the view that women should not engage in crimes. However, this situation has changed drastically due to women movements that tend to empower women and expose them to crimes. The development of masculine tendencies by women has led to the emergence of use of illegitimate method in an attempt to climb the social ladder; these include blackmail and prostitution. References Cashdan, Elizabeth 2003. "Hormones and Competitive Aggression in Women." Aggressive Behavior,: vol.29, no.2, 107–115. Cauffman, Elizabeth 2008, Understanding the Female Offender Available from. [ 22 April 2012]. Corston, Baroness n.d.. The Corston Report. Available from . [22 April 2012]. Cote, Suzette 2002, Criminological Theories: Bridging the Past to the Future, Sage, California. Fitch, Frank 2010, "Laggards, Labeling, and Limitations: Re-Connecting Labeling Deviance Theory With Deweyan Pragmatism." Philosophical Studies In Education, vol.41, no.1, 17-28. 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