Ethnic Style in Male-Female Conversation - Research Paper Example

Ethnic Style in Male-Female Conversation Introduction It is quite common among adults to misinterpret what each is trying to communicate to the other. Such misunderstanding stems from different degrees of indirectness used in conversation. Such experiences are more common between male and female belonging to different society, culture or having different linguistic background. Often, depending on one’s socio cultural upbringing, individuals have their own sense of what is the correct thing to say and how to say the correct thing. Every person has a conversational strategy and successful conversation can take place when such strategies are shared. Only then two people communicating with each other can understand each other with shared identity. On the other hand, where there is lack of a common chord in conversational strategies, feelings of disharmony, not being understood are created. In this way, conversational style becomes a major element of ethnicity. Every language has distinct words to interpret specific objects which are different in other languages. However, signaling intentions and attitudes depend on personal styles of individuals. Conversational style is “both a consequence and indicator of ethnicity” (Tannen, 1982, p.230). Indirectness which is a roundabout way of saying a particular thing is a stamp of one’s distinct style and personality which changes according to situations. It means not explicitly stating what one wants and the meaning is inferred by the listener based on previous conversations and expectations and also from “culturally agreed upon meanings that are associated with particular expressions” (Tannen, 2006, p.361). This way of expressing through conversation is a means of satisfying the coexisting and conflicting positive and negative forces. For instance, when one wants to be left alone, he will not say it directly as he will not want to cause displeasure to others. He will apply strategy for indirect way of saying the same. Indirectness is a manner in which one can fulfill the purpose of both rapport and defensiveness. By rapport it means a subtle way of expressing one’s desire and getting it fulfilled. It means the desire expressed in a way that it is understood without being explained. Defensiveness means the strategic way of saying a particular thing which keeps the door open for reneging if the conversation is not accepted favorably by others. For instance, one can always say later on “I never said that,” or “that isn’t what I meant” (Tanner, 1982, p.218). Since conversational strategies and degrees of indirectness often vary with cultural differences between individuals, therefore misunderstandings even from simple conversations can emerge more in cross-cultural communication. Research questions 1. How gender based conversational styles are influenced by social status and context? 2. To what extent communicator’s gender based language is influenced by the partner’s gender? 3. What is the impact of gender on language learning process? Literature Review Gender based conversational strategies Croft et al. (2007) have focused on the different conversational strategies adopted by men and women. While women tend to talk more about personal matters, men talk about other matters like business and sports. Women also use more non-verbal techniques like hand movements to stress their point while men usually keep their hands folded. It is generally observed that women tend to make more vigorous movement of heads than men. This is also influenced by the partner’s gender, for instance, a person speaking with a woman will make more movements of head than when the person is speaking with a man. Boker et al. (2011) have concluded that gender recognition is based completely on appearance while the extent of masculinity or femininity is assessed based on both appearance and dynamics. To access degree of femininity, both voice dynamics and body movements are considered while to access degree of masculinity voice dynamics remains the primary consideration. Nordenstam (1992) explores the gender based conversational styles. Although previous research associates conversational styles with the manner of talking, the author has suggested that such styles are strategies applied to attain a communication goal. The study is based on the theory that male and female communicators have their distinct moral perspectives which are reflected in their conversations. For the purpose of the research, Swedish born men and women between the ages of 25 and 50 were selected and were asked to choose partners with whom they were to communicate for half an hour. They were further split into 3 groups containing six dyads in each group. One group had men communicating with men, second group had women communicating with women and the third group had men and women communicating with each other. It was observed that topic changes in conversation occurred comparatively more times in women’s groups than in men’s groups. Also, majority of topic changes in the mixed groups were initiated by women. It was concluded that women are more prone towards changing topics since they remain more involved during conversations. The second thing observed is that men are more uncomfortable finding topics to discuss about and in some cases they have complained loudly about it. However, in women’s group such problems did not appear and they did not feel inhibited to talk about random topics. Regarding topics, it was observed that men mostly talk about their professions, preferred sports, cars etc. while women talk about family and personal relations. In mixed groups, men and women focused on different kinds of topics. Men also exhibit more indifference in conversations and are also less free since their conversations are recorded. Such traits are not dependent on the partner’s gender. Such gender differences lead to men and women desiring changes in their partners, and this has been investigated by Heyman et al. (2009) in their article. It was observed that the partner who is more adjustable in a relationship with the opposite gender is less inclined to demand changes in his or partner. This is because more adjustment capability makes that person immune to any desired changes in his or partner as the persons tend to overlook any negative traits of their partner. In any discussion, it is arguments and counter arguments that maintain a competitive exercise. When one writes an essay, it is usually “counter-positional” and “agonistic” (Lloyd, 2013, p.246) favoring certain points by refusing other points, and is framed by extreme views. Such extreme views can only give rise to double meanings with no fixed perspectives. Such arguments, which are mostly seen on the media, provide no scope for dialogues. Lloyd (2013) has explored an Indian approach to argument known as Nyaya and also feminist perspectives. In general students are taught aggressive form of arguments that induce them to participate in debates with a winning goal as a result of which they hardly listen to what others are communicating. Such arguments are not natural. In ancient India, the Nyaya method was developed which “centralizes because-type arguments made immediately understandable through a shared analogy” (Lloyd, 2013, p.247). Nyaya is based on analogues with proper reasoning to make it comprehensible. Nyaya has three central features – 1) arguments need to have sharable analogies bound by proper reasoning, 2) arguers need to filter their motives for arguments like fear or desire, and 3) arguments should be comprehensible to all participants. The feminist approach to argument induces the audience to come to their own conclusion, and the arguer uses well defined methods as embodiment of their beliefs. Both the approaches to arguments involved analysis of the self and are therefore progressive. Communication among children Communication among peers is an important developmental element among children. It has been observed that children use more complex sentences when conversing with peers than with adults. Tulviste et al. (2010) have conducted a study to investigate cultural, contextual and gender differences in children’s peer talk. The study was conducted on 38 Estonian, 38 Finnish and 34 Swedish pre-school children, and they were observed while they were playing first with a fishing game provided by the researcher, and then any other play of their choice. Since the first game required a playmate, it was observed that Estonian and Finnish children preferred same sex as their partners. In respect to interaction among peers, it was found that communication was not affected by the pattern of the games. Moreover, the conversation standard and the vocabulary used were not gender specific except for the Swedish boys who used more imperatives that their female counterparts. However, it was observed that Estonian children used richer vocabulary than the Finnish and Swedish children. The emotional expressions of children develop from observing adults. However, emotional conversation and the style of talking are not only based on gender of the speaker but also that of the listener. The same has been concluded by a study (Tenenbaum et al., 2011) conducted on 80 girls and 64 boys between six and eight years who were asked to tell stories in two wordless picture books. It was found that girls talked in a more emotional manner than the boys while the latter gave a controlling speech. Another factor observed was that children’s manner of speech was influenced by gender of the partner. While they use more emotional speech when the partners are boys, they use more obliging speech when partners are girls. This type of conversation of children is to a large extent influenced by parent-child conversation. Young girls tend to use more emotions in their speech since mothers do more emotional talks with their daughters than with their sons. This study indicated that children adopt their conversational style from their parents and this they apply when communicating with their peers. Impact of partner’s gender It is language that provides image of a person and helps us to evaluate the personality of others and their social standing. For instance, “use of references to emotions can lead to higher ratings of aesthetic quality and sociointellectual status for communicators whereas tentative language at times can enhance social influence for speakers” (Ye & Palomares, 2013, p.434). Contrary to the general belief that gender based language remains consistent, research has proved that many factors other than gender can moderate such language. Ye and Palomares have explored the impact of gender of the communicator’s partner on the language of the communicator. The conclusion has been that gender salience plays an important role in the existence of language based on gender difference and also establishes the degree of such difference in language due to gender. For instance, during a conversation it is the dominant partner’s gender that determines the language of the communicator. This cannot happen between two same genders which means a communicator’s language is based on the partner’s gender. Gender based communication styles Researchers have already pointed out differences in gender based language like female use more polite language with less complex sentences while the male are inclined to use more slang language. Masaitiene (2004) has examined the daily conversations of four English and four Lithuanians to assess the difference between male and female language. One important element of casual conversation is that the participants tend to speak simultaneously thus leading to overlapping of sentences. However, this has a positive side since it enhances topic discussion rather than disturbing the flow of the conversation. This is more in case of two women pursuing a topic where both may speak simultaneously but without robbing the other’s right to speak. It has also been observed that women can make rapid conversations when no men are participating. In case of the Lithuanians, it was seen that men interrupted their partners either to stress their own opinion or to change the topic whereas women spoke simultaneously as way of repetitions. The finding of this research is consistent with the theory that “women’s talk is characteristically all-in-together as they tend to combine voices to construct a shared text” (Masaitiene, 2004, p.96). Women with their language tend to reduce social gaps and establish equality while men use language to establish their dominant power. The study has also established that in daily conversations, there is minimum difference between male and female languages. As already mentioned, language can be used as tool to exert power or influence over others. Language strategies used by women exhibit their perceived lower status in the society than men since their language indicates insecurity and powerlessness. On the other hand, men use prolonged silence or give minimum replies during conversations, and also maintain an aggressive stance to prove their dominance. Such stereotyped male and female languages have been observed in a study conducted by Tanaka (2009) on Japanese male and female participants during their gender mixed interactions. The study also included analysis of television interviews. It was observed that while hosts of either gender exhibit politeness, in case of guests the female show more assertiveness than the male guests. However, other than gender there are factors like age, social status and topic of discussion that play significant roles in determining gender based language. The study has concluded that there is no specific language strategy that exclusively belongs to men or women as speakers use polite or aggressive approach depending on the situation and topic. Second language (L2) learners Men and women adopt different communication strategies when speaking in native language. Su and Huang (2013) have focused on foreign language learners and how gender plays a role in L2 conversation. During a language-related episode (LRE), which means learners probe the language produced and assess own correctness, “learners focus their attention on input and output through negotiation for meaning, notice the gap through feedback, and then test hypotheses and automatize their language production through modifications of output” (Su & Huang, 2013, p.5). The study conducted by Su and Huang showed that gender of the learners had no significant impact on the interactional patterns of LRE resolution. In order to learn the role of gender on conversations, it is necessary to consider gender of both speaker and interlocutor. It has also been observed that female participants adopted clarity in their speech style and male participants added distance style. An interlocutor reacts differently to each style. Speakers using more clarity induce the interlocutor to eagerly provide LRE solutions thus getting more inputs while speakers using distance style discourages the interlocutor from providing LRE solutions leading to less inputs. Methodological challenges Ehrlich (2007) has investigated a courtroom trial case of sexual assault to understand the methodological challenges faced by language and gender from post modern approach to gender. Gender cannot be associated with speaker’s identity since it is a social process by which individuals exhibit cultural sense. It was seen in the trial that speakers and hearers have talked based on social identities and intelligence, and also the judges recontextualized the local talk in the same manner. During the trial, the complainant stated that she was a victim of forced sex, but she did not resist for fear of prolonged violence. The Supreme Court of Canada represented the facts in consistent with the complainant’s narration. However, the Alberta Court of Appeal considered the lack of resistance as the complainant’s consent for sex. Ehrlich has looked at the different cultural assumptions made by different judges. The Alberta Court considered that resistance was necessary to prove the sex was coerced and viewed physical reluctance as a feminine trait which means the event was a normal sexual activity between a man and a woman. The Supreme Court viewed the reluctance of the complainant to do sex as not giving consent. Since judges interpret all languages of courtroom talk, this case has demonstrated “social consequences associated with the performance of unauthorized and unintelligible gendered identities” (Ehlrich, 2007, p.472). ASD syndromes Kothari et al. (2013) have studied autistic children and associated their traits with poor discrimination of emotions. Autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) are more common in girls than boys and according to recent studies the disorder manifests more in boys than girls. This is because girls can better deal with the deficiency of social communication skills and so such disorder is less apparent in them on daily basis. Teachers of ASD children claim that the males require more severe psychopathology than the females. The social communication deficiency in ASD children of either gender is associated with their lack of recognition of facial expressions like happiness, sadness, anger and as on. When each gender was studied separately, it could be observed that boys made more errors in recognizing different facial expressions than girls. Moreover, studies have shown that expression recognition inability in male adults with ASD is associated more with negative facial expressions like sadness and anger than positive expressions like happiness. In another study made by Constantino et al. (2003, p.524) it was concluded that genetic influence on autistic traits in both girls and boys are equal and lower prevalence of ASD in girls can be attributed to “increased sensitivity to early environmental influences that operate to promote social competency”. All these imply that girls require more penetrating diagnosis to assess their ASD syndromes. Since girls more than boys can better cope with ASD related disabilities, therefore their condition may not reach the severe level as boys. Gender distinctions Based on E. Hemingway’s fiction, it has been observed that fictional male characters use more question tags than their female counterparts. This reflects men’s natural tendency to search confirmation for their perspectives especially in contest-based situations. In mixed conversations, men are inclined to show dominant power over women. Gender differences in language occur mainly because of different social and cultural standings of men and women. In Hemingway’s short stories men are depicted as dominant while women are depicted as polite and submissive (Baranauskiene & Adminiene, 2012). In most studies, such gender differences in conversational styles have been proved by the fact that men behave in a more competitive manner while women behave in a more cooperative manner. In conversations, along with sentences there are also single words or phrases that emerge frequently. These are pragmatic particles and are usually not found in written language. Phrases like you know, you see and I mean are used in different frequencies by men and women as per men’s dominant nature and women’s passive nature (Wouk, 1999, p.199). Power as factor In addition to gender, there is also power factor that decides the length of conversation of men and women. Power induces an individual to exhibit more power in their expression of opinions. People in powerful positions feel that they have the right to draw the attention of others by making long speeches. However, gender based research has shown that women for their natural submissive nature are less aggressive and so less inclined to hold leadership positions. A study conducted on US senators showed that male senators are more voluble than women since women fear criticisms over long speeches (Brescoll, 2011). Interpretational tendencies Khosroshahi (1989) has studied people’s tendency to form male images when interpreting a generic sentence. Language reflects thought processes of readers. Traditionally most people continue to use he as pronoun in a generic sentence and also interpret generic sentences as male referrals. However, women who have reformed language think and read female when reading a language. On the other hand, men who have reformed language although use feminine pronouns in generic sentences, the images formed in their minds are not of female. This proves that any new trait is associated with new thoughts only when the change happens intrinsically. For men, language reform is a superficial change induced by specific situations or personal pressure. Adair (2012) has explained gender difference as more a psychological manifestation than any real identity, and how such binary systems of identity can be more harmful than useful. It is the action of a person that produces illusion of gender since every individual tends to emulate the ideals of a gender. A person develops personality traits and dresses in the manner that befits one’s gender which is again an assumed element. For instance, a male person will refuse to cry or shed tears even at times of intense grief due to the fear of displaying feminine traits. It is however necessary in many occasions to cry to deal with the pains of life. On the other hand, women are less assertive but they need to lead own lives. Therefore, such creation of gender identities only leads to people making “unbearable choices” in life (Adair, 2012, p.851). Feminist translation and feminist sociolinguists Ergun (2013) has focused on common points of feminist translation and feminist sociolinguists. The purpose has been to establish stimulating dialogues between the fields. It was concluded that alliance between the fields has already been there because of common elements of feminist language. Both fields approach language as a “site of contested meanings, discourses, identities and power relations” (Ergun, 2013, p.29). With increased communication and cooperation between feminist translations and feminist sociolinguists the political power of language can be enhanced. Findings Gender based conversational styles are influenced by the social status perspective of men and women. Men by nature are dominating and tend to assert their opinion on their female counterparts while women are implicitly submissive and this is reflected in the strategies they apply in their conversational styles. A study conducted on Estonian, Swedish and Finnish children showed different degrees of directives thus proving the impact of cultural and contextual factors on gender differences in peer talk. Likewise, the influence of partner’s gender is strong on the speaker as could be seen in a research done on same gender dyads and mixed dyads. Children use more emotional speeches when with boys and more obliging speech when with girls. When learning a foreign language, it can be seen that learners resolve LREs in a more accurate way when with mixed genders than with same gender. Method For the first part of the paper which is the literature review section, I have used twenty journal articles retrieved from various Internet search engines like Google, scholar, EBSCOhost etc. I have focused mainly on gender related conversational issues and what influences conversational styles of either gender. The journal articles date between 1989 to 2013, which means more than two decades of research work has been included. I have made a brief review of each article focusing on the results and discussion parts since most of the journals are research journals. I have made sure all the articles are relevant to the requirement of this paper. The articles have used different analytical techniques, research designs and methods. Discussion From the various research articles, it can be observed that gender influence is not strong on use of vocabulary standard and length of talkativeness. However, the topic of discussion is largely depended on the speaker and partner’s gender. While women tend to talk more about personal matters and relationships, the men talk more about impersonal issues like sports, politics and so on. Gender based communication is based on activity settings and cultural contexts. From a research conducted on children of three nationalities who were asked to play researcher induced game and also a free game, it was concluded that it was the type of game and not the gender of the speaker that determines talkative levels of children. In case of emotional language usage it can be found that girls can use more emotional speech than boys while boys use more controlled speech. Research has shown that when children of both genders are communicating with each other then the level of difference between usage of emotions by boys and girls is more than when communication takes place between children of same gender. One important thing that has been noted is the fact that girls use more emotional speeches than boys is result of parent-child conversation. In general, mothers of sons tend to use less emotional words while talking to their sons than mothers of daughters. This gets reflected in children’s conversation when they are communicating with their peers. The gender quality of men and women is one strong influencing factor on gender language usage skills. Women, because of their perceived lower position in the society, tend to use their language to exhibit compliance and dependence as well as to reduce social distance with communication partners. On the other hand, men show their dominating power in the manner they use their language. They tend to assert their opinions and display power to dominate. From a study conducted on autistic children, it was observed that girls have more adjusting power with their lack of emotion recognition capacity than boys. As a result of this it can be said that girls’ understanding of facial expressions of partners is more than that of boys. The natural tendency of either gender is to interpret generic sentences as images of male characters which is the reason why most people use masculine pronouns like he in such sentences. Only people who have reformed their usage tend to use feminine pronouns more. However, in case of male readers such reforms are more superficial than intrinsic and for female readers such reforms are intrinsic. Implementation Future studies need to focus on large samples from broader cultural and social status. This will determine more explicitly the exclusive impact of gender on language in comparison to other factors like age, culture and social status. Conclusion It has already been accepted for centuries that people use language in different ways to express their feelings, opinions etc. However, this paper focuses on gender based differences in language. Recent studies have shown that men and women have distinct style of using language and a word spoken by a man with a specific goal can be interpreted in a different way by a woman, and vice versa. Leaving aside age and social status factors as contributors to language adaptation, various journal articles used in this paper have focused on gender related perspectives, comprehension of language and use of emotional words and also body language. It is more the tendency to remain true to one’s perspective of gender that induces people to use specific language skills. This is the reason why a woman is more polite during conversations than men who tend towards aggressiveness indicating that men are more dominant than women. References Adair, S. 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