Body Image and Gender - Essay Example

In our current society it has, especially for women, become the norm to be dissatisfied with one’s body and to exhibit an antagonistic relationship with food. This phenomenon has been termed a normative discontent by specialists who study eating disorders (Lowery, et al., 2005; Hoyt & Kogan, 2001). This dissatisfaction reflects the perception that many women have of their bodies and the image that they present to society, yet studies have shown that more and more men are exhibiting this type of behavior (Rinderknecht & Smith, 2002). One’s body image is a subjective and changeable view of the whole or parts of one’s body, which contributes to the general belief about one’s physical attractiveness (Frost & McKelvie, 2004; Cash, Morrow, Hrabosky, & Perry, 2004; Lowery et al., 2005). One constructs this image through a complicated mixture of the observation of oneself, others’ reaction to one’s body, as well as through memories of comments made by parental and other authoritative figures in the past. The dissatisfaction with this image is often called body image disturbance (2005) and is often measured as degree of body dissatisfaction (Lokken, et al. 2003) or cathexis, which is defined as the degree of satisfaction with one’s body (Frost & McKelvie). Many who study it consider it a problem that has been growing in both men and women over the past two-and-a-half decades. However, it has been shown that women exhibit an overwhelmingly greater tendency toward a negative body image. They show this behavior to a much higher degree and on a numerically wider scale than men do (Lokken, et al., 2003; Frost & McKelvie, 2004; Lowery et al., 2005). Lowery, et al (2005) cite research that a greater portion of women harbor unpleasant feelings when they consider their bodies, and that women’s ideal body figures are often more widely different from the way they perceive their own bodies. Furnham, Badmin, and Sneade (2002) and Rinderknecht and Smith (2002) carried out research that resulted in findings similar to these. In fact, the Furnham, et al. study showed that three times as many men as women desire to have a body image that was widely different from their current perception of themselves. Cash et al. (2004) allude to research indicating that women’s body image disturbance has increased between 1966 and 1996, but that no significant change has been demonstrated in that of men. A possible reason for this is seen in research by Hoyt and Kogan (2001). They point out that body image is generally associated with psychological, sociological, as well as physiological influences, and it is understood that the pressures for women to be attractive are greater than those that push men toward attractiveness. Such pressures include societal ideals (which have been changing over the years) and men’s general unwillingness to enter relationships with women they perceive as unattractive. Especially in college, it has proven to be the trend that women strive for a more slender figure and a lighter body weight, more so than their male counterparts (Cash, et al, 2004; Hoyt & Kogan, 2001; Furnham, Badmin, and Sneade, 2002). Yet one longitudinal study cited by Cash et al., which occurred over a 15-year period from 1983 to 1998, offered results that shown no significant increase in body image satisfaction for men or women over the period. Another longitudinal study cited by Cash and his team employed a nine-figure silhouette scale. It revealed that some women who while in college had had negative body images, after ten years and only a 4-lb average weight gain, reported higher levels of body image satisfaction than a group of men who had over the period gained an average of 12 lbs. This result differed from that of most research, though it might be inferred that the reason those women were able to keep the low weights was that they were concerned with their body image. Other research tended also to reveal that while some men express a desire to decrease their body weight, others express the desire to increase it (Lokken, et al. 2003; Furnham, Badmin, and Sneade, 2002). According to Frost and McKelvie (2004), most men who were dissatisfied with their weight desired to gain weight—an average of 5.7 lbs in their study. Women were generally more concerned with being thinner, desiring to lose an average of 7.4 lbs (2004). It has often proven to be the case that women who exercise a lot and are leaner express a greater dissatisfaction with their bodies than do women who do little or no exercise (Lowery et al., 2005). This might rest upon the idea that women who are dissatisfied are likely be the ones doing a lot of exercise in order to change their image, whereas those who are not dissatisfied, perhaps for that reason, feel little or no pressure to exercise. Interestingly, in a study cited in the work of Cash et al. (2004), Caucasian women were assessed as being more prone to body image dissatisfaction than Black women. The study was, however, limited to non-Black men, and these men evinced a small level of decreased body image satisfaction. The study done by Rinderknecht and Smith showed that Native American young men were more likely their female counterparts to be at ease with their body images (2002). What men and women did have strictly in common was that those who reported body image disturbance were more likely to exercise and diet for reasons relating to weight, figure, and general attractiveness. Those who exercised in order to maintain health showed a negative correlation between these actions and their body image (Lowery et al., 2005). The various studies done reported that women demonstrated a higher tendency than do men to survey their bodies on a regular basis, and reported a higher degree of discrepancy between their perceived and ideal figures (Lowery et al., 2005). Shirao and his team (2005) were able to show through MRI readings that women’s brain reactions to unpleasant words about body image were more highly emotional than the reaction of men to similar stimuli. The tendency to process body image using emotional rather than cognitive skills was seen to have much to do with the fact that women are more likely than men to dislike their bodies and become depressed as a result. Body focus for the two genders, which relates to the areas for which they harbor most concern and to which they pay attention, differ as well. Men tend to focus on their upper torsos (chest, shoulders, and arms) while women are more apt to focus on waist, belly, hips, buttocks and thighs (Hoyt and Kogan, 2001). Despite these differences, it is important to note that the societal ideals for both men and women place emphasis on leanness, and that both groups show dissatisfaction as it regards weight and muscular tone (2001). Still, the literature reviewed showed that when the “problem” areas for both men and women were considered, women still tended to be more dissatisfied with their body image as a whole than were men (Lokken et al., 2003). Their own study corroborated their review of research, as it showed that even women who showed low body focus desired to be significantly thinner, whereas even men with high body focus reported that their perceived body image was close to their ideal one (2003). It has been shown repeatedly that body image is the most significant contributor to eating disorders (Hoyt & Kogan, 2001), and Shirao et al. (2005) also have the view that there is significant correlation between the two. Studies have also shown that approximately 90% of all persons that have eating disorders are women (Shirao et al. 2005). This might stem from the fact that during pubescence, a woman’s figure tends to deviate from socio-cultural ideals, whereas that of men tends to move toward what is lauded in society (2001). In accordance with this, the study done by Hoyt and Kogan revealed that while 84% of college men surveyed were satisfied with their current weight, only 66% of the women were satisfied with theirs. It also showed that underweight women at-risk for anorexia showed little or no signs of being more satisfied with their body image than were those women of normal or excessive weight. However, in a study done by Friedman, et al. (2002), the degree of a person’s obesity (whether male or female) correlated with their evaluation of body image. Further, body image was found to be a mediator or determiner of self esteem and level of depression. This general tendency in women to be more dissatisfied with their bodies than men extends even to adolescents and pre-teens. Phares, Steinberg, and Thompson (2004) have cited research showing that adolescent girls of average weight are about as likely as overweight adolescents to be on a diet. These girls, regardless of their levels of eating disorders, tended to be highly concerned about their appearance and dissatisfied with their body images. Pre-adolescent children show a similar pattern, as “children as young as 6 years old express dissatisfaction with their body and a substantial amount (40%) have attempted to lose weight” (2004). This was not the case for most boys. In their own study of children, Phares, Steinberg and Thompson (2004) employed Indices of fatness, eating disorders, psychological functioning, and self-perception. The results showed that 61% of girls desired to lose weight, while only 36% of boys showed interest in weight-loss. Yet, the body mass indices and tests of parental or peer influence (via teasing) turned up similar results for both boys and girls. Wherever both boys and girls showed body-image dissatisfaction, it was positively correlated with depression levels and self worth. Yet, while girls who were dissatisfied with their bodies exhibited some tendency toward bulimia and depression, little relationship was shown among these variables for boys. In another study that included elementary, high school, and university students from both genders, it is worthy of note that girls at that level tended to have a better perception of body image than did boys (Frost & McKelvie, 2004). This records a result that differs from the foregoing one, but may have something to do with the fact that at this stage these girls have not yet begun developing away from the societal ideal, while the boys have not yet begun developing toward that ideal. When it came to high school and university levels, however, the results corroborated the general trend of women having a more negative body image than men. In addition, men’s self-esteem was reported higher than that of women as it regarded physical attributes, and even at the elementary level boys’ self-esteem proved to be no lower than girls’ despite the documented lower body image in that group (2004). This study seeks to continue the exploration of the idea that women are more susceptible to the acquisition of a negative body image than are men. In the pursuit of this, a nine-figure silhouette scale such as the one below will be used to gather information about the way the genders perceive their bodies as well as what each individual considers to be the ideal body image for him- or herself. References Cash, T. F., J. A. Morrow, J. I. Hrabosky, & A. A. Perry. (2004). “How has body Image Changed? A cross-sectional investigation of college women and men from 1983-2001.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 72.6, 1081-1089. Frost, J & S. McKelvie. (2004). “Self-esteem and body satisfaction in male and female elementary school, high school, and university students.” Sex Roles. Vol 51.1/2, 45. Friedmann, K. E., S. K. Reichmann, P. R. Costanzo, & G. J. Musante. “Body image partially mediates the relationship between obesity and psychological distress.” Obesity Research. Vol. 10.1, 33-41. Furnham, A., N. Badmin, & I. Sneade. “Body image dissatisfaction: gender differences in eating attitudes, self-esteem, and reasons for exercise.” The Journal of Psychology. Vol. 136.6, 581-596. Hoyt, W. & L. R. Kogan. (2001). “Satisfaction with body image and peer relationships for males and females in a college environment.” Sex Roles. Vol. 45.3/4, 199-215. Lokken, K., F. R. Ferrraro, T. Kirchner, & M. Bowling. (2003). “Gender differences in body size dissatisfaction among individuals with low, medium, or high levels of body focus.” The Journal of General Psychology. Vol. 130.3, 305. Lowery, S. E., S. E. Robinson-Kurpius, C. Befort, & E. H. Banks. “Body image, self-esteem, and health-related behaviors among male and female first year college students.” Journal of College Student Development. Vol. 46.6, 612-623. Phares, V., A. R. Steinberg, and J. K. Thompson. (2004). “Gender differences in peer and parental influences: body image disturbance, self-worth, and psychological functioning in preadolescent children.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Vol. 33.5, 421-429. Rinderknecht, K. & C. Smith. (2002). Body-image perceptions among urban Native American youth.” Obesity Research. Vol. 10.5, 315-327. Shirao, N., Y. Okamoto, T. Mantani, Y. Okamoto, & S. Yamawaki. (2005). “Gender differences in brain activity generated by unpleasant word stimuli concerning body image: an fMRI study.” British Journal of Psychiatry. Vol. 186, 48-53. Read More