Sex Differences on Perception of Female Body Shape as Attractive - Literature review Example

?# ## # Sex differences on perception of female body shape as attractive A Review of the Relevant Literature Body image is apart of the overall perception of an individuals position within his or her world. The perception of attractiveness in regard to the female body is observed to be of high value and causes critical differences in the quality of life when perceived as high or low. While attractiveness is a quality that is difficult to quantify, scientific means can lead to answers to the question in regard to general perceptions. The following review intends to search the relevant literature in regard to substantive information about the way in which males and females perceive the body image of the female gender. This analysis will be through the systematic search of journal databases in order to find commonalities among various articles through key word searches. The primary concern of the research was focused on body weight as most articles articulated this aspect of body image as being the primary focus of quantifying attractiveness. The search strategy that was used for this study was undertaken through a search of the Web of Knowledge data base, specifically through Medline and Webscience. 40 studies were defined as relevant to the study and were used in order to compare both duplicate results and to contrast any information that might be in conflict. Through the use of a large variety of studies, the conclusions were verified through multiple resources and the information was confirmed as reliable. #Sex differences on perception of female body shape as attractive A Review of the Relevant Literature Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Background and Importance The body image issues in the Western world have gained ground in importance through the influence of the media. Body image is connected to issues of success, of mating, and of overall mental health in terms of contentment with the quality of one’s life. Conditions such as obesity, anorexia, and bulimia are directly associated with perceptions of dissatisfaction with body image. Studies support the perceptions of poor body image where weight is concerned as socially relevant studies have shown that higher levels of attractiveness is perceived in the female body shape when it has a lower BMI (Farinah 2005: Cash et al 2004). Therefore, the study of this phenomenon has occurred through the work of multiple researchers who have explored the perceptions of female body image through both the male and female perspective. Social influences have been determined to have an impact on the fashion of body weight in terms of perception of attraction. The media has the highest level of power in influencing the fashion of body weight attractiveness where females are concerned (Johnson and Petri 1995: Feingold and Mazzella 1998: Glauert, Rhodes, Byrne, Fink, and Grammer. 2009).. Family and friends more often provide a positive influence, while media influence produce highly improbably ideals that are improbable for most women to replicate. This creates a lowered self-esteem and predicts lower overall satisfaction in life. This can lead to food issues and eating disorders which impact the quality of life. The following literature review has been conducted using a search strategy that includes the use of the Web Knowledge database, an online service through which the entering of key words provides a selection of appropriate relevant literature. The first section of the work will provide a list of key words that were used in order to conduct the search. In the process of conducting this search, a large number of articles were discovered that have initial relevant content. The articles were then searched to find those which had the most detailed relevant content and through which the best possible choices could be made towards establishing a foundation for the topic. 1.3 Search Protocol 1.3.1 Selection Criteria The topic of this paper is the differences in perception that males and females appreciate in regard to how the female body shape is defined as attractive. This topic requires a discussion of the psychology that is involved in differences of gender perceptions as well as defining the concept of attraction as it relates to cultural perceptions. Therefore, the criteria for the topic was limited in order to make it most relevant to the Western aesthetics. The types of studies that were searched were conducted in locations that were defined by their Western populations. While no population in the Western world is defined by any one heritage due to the extensive amount of migration that has occurred on a global level to the West, those who live in a Western country are usually subjected to the same kind of media exposure which has an element of unification in creating concepts that will define tastes with variations that are influenced by cultural heritage as it is past down through familial attitudes. Appropriate outcomes that will be considered will have definitive answers through quantitative study that has provided for a framework towards defining Western concepts of attractiveness. 1.3.2 Search Strategy In order to search for the appropriate articles through which to create a framework for the topic, an extensive search of relevant psychiatric journals allowed for a significant number of responses. The search was conducted through the Web of Knowledge in which key words were used in order to elicit specific orientation to the topic. Medline, a sub database of Web Knowledge, was searched for documents that were defined by post 1950 publication while Web Science was defined by post 1970 publication. Key words for the search include: gender differences and female body shapes, Body attract, sex difference, WHR and BMI, physical attract and gender diff, and woman body attract and sex diff. These combinations of relevant terms were used with the intention of eliciting responses that were relevant to the intended search. The searches were often refined by words such as female, male, sexuality, and perception in order to find subsets of the collections found by the initial key search phrases. The initial number of search results using only the listed key word combinations added up to 437 potential journal articles from psychiatric journals that fit into the criteria. Keywords entered Search results Gender differences AND Female Body Shapes 148 (0) body attract* AND sex diff* OR WHR OR BMI 120 (0) Physical Attract* AND Gender Diff* 97 (0) woman body attract* AND sex diff* 72 (J no. 30, 7, 8, 11, 16 Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria Written in English Not written in English The cause of male’s perception in female body shapes Perceptions on male body shape The cause of female’s perception on female body shape Perceptions of homosexual individuals The gender differences in perception of female body shapes The criteria of the search included articles written in English, the cause of male’s perception in female body shapes, the cause of female’s perception on female body shape, and the gender differences in perception of female body shapes. The criteria for excluding an article includes; articles not in English, perceptions on male body shapes, and perceptions of those who are attracted to the same-sex. The question is defined by heterosexual attraction in order to create a consistency in the way in which attraction is framed. To include the perceptions of females who are attracted to females and males who are not attracted to females in a sexual context would change the framework iand results of the topic. The search produced approximately 212 possible articles that honed in on the topic with the criteria that was presented with another 52 eliminated because of assessment that they did not appear to have evidence that allowed them to be more closely examined for relevant information. The final 60 articles were examined for their content and the top 40 articles with relevant content were selected to be included in the review. The search revealed that there were three main categories of sub-topics in which the literature would fall: male perceptions versus female perceptions, media influences, and body distortion. 1.3.3 Methods of Review The following review will be divided into sections that reflect the relevancy of the articles that will be assessed for content. Commonalities will be pulled from the articles and the data will be mined for information that supports common ideas. Subgroups that provide for information that supports the main topic will be assessed and included in order to give the data depth. The sections will be divided and organized into sections that reflect a growth in understanding from the subtopics to the main topic. These sections are regarding, social pressures, ethnic differences, body weight, body image through the media, the crisis state of female self perception, and body distortion. 1.4 Summary The literature review was accomplished through an organized search of the Web of Knowledge which was narrowed to 40 articles that were assessed for relevant information from which to assess the topic of the review. The search used key words from which to create a viable set of articles from which to make the final selection after making sure that the articles fit into a certain inclusive set of criteria, while not conflicting with the exclusionary criteria. Chapter Two: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction In discussing the concept of body image, one of the more important relevant factors in trying to determine objective assessment is in the subjective nature of the terms used to describe the concepts of body image and attraction (Cash, Morrow, Perry, and Hrabosky 2004, p. 1081). Attraction does not seem to be easily measured in regard to body image. WHR is not near as important as BMI, thus a lowered body weight has a higher level of attraction than does WHR. According to Tovee, Hancock, Mahmoodi, Singleton, & Cornelissen (2002), wavelength analysis of components of body shape produced no discernable differences in attraction. BMI was the optimal measure through which attraction was defined. Body weight appears to be one of the most important issues in regard to female body shape attractiveness. Lower body weights have the most often perception of attractiveness to both males and females (Farinah 2005: Cash et al 2004). 2.2 Social pressures in regard to body image Fisak, Tantleff-Dunn, and Peterson (2007) discovered a correlation between personality and attraction to body shape. In a study that included 335 students with an average age of 18.34, the CDFRS (Contour Drawing Figure Rating Scale) and the PASTAS (Physical Appearance State and Trait Anxiety Scale) was combined with two vignettes that were used to describe personality traits, one along a negative track and the other along a positive track. The results showed that females had a wider selection of male body types that were attractive, while men had a narrower selection of female body types that were considered attractive. However, when personality details were included, a wider selection of body types were included as attractive for both male and female, although perception of attractiveness of women still included less body types. A hierarchal regression was used in order to assess the results and conclusions (see Appendix 1, Tables 4, 5). This result shows why CDFRS is a limited way in which to assess the level of attraction. Body image is connected to other aspects of perception when assessing the attractiveness of a woman. Males assign a disproportionate high level of importance on female attractiveness in regard to the search for long term committed relationships (Maisey, Vale, Cornelissen, and Tovee 1999). When allotted a limited ‘mating budget’ of resources from which to design a mate, males will allot the largest portion of their budget towards looks (Singh 2004). It is possible then to equate the desire to be attractive for girls as being incremental in relationship to age. As girls age, their perceived body image goes down in satisfaction (Clay, Vignoles, and Dittmar 2005). Puberty changes the way in which self-esteem is then created. Girls begin to define themselves according to the external. Another aspect of attractiveness that has been researched is in the development of physical function during puberty in relationship with body weight. Body image was viewed by female, and to a lesser extend, by males viewing females, as correlative to the physical development in puberty and the functioning of that development. Females with earlier development of post-pubescent body function were considered of higher attractive value of girls of the same age who had not gone under pubescent changes (Abbot and Barber 2010: Frost and McKelvie 2004: Lake, Power, and Cole 1997: Parkinson, Tovee, and Cohen-Tovee 1998). Older age does not diminish the perception of lower BMI in attractiveness in females. When surveyed, older women and men chose lower body weight images as more attractive than higher body weigh images. However, when asked about women in their own age range in regard to body weight, men were not dissatisfied with higher body weights in women, where women still expressed a desire for lower body weights. This suggests further study is needed in determining why men are satisfied at an older age with the attractive level of higher weight women where this is an urgent issue when considering a long term commitment. As well, the pressure on women even as their age advances to continue with lower body weight should be examined (Ferraro et al 2008: Algers et al 2009). 2.3 Ethnic differences as they relate to social pressure concerning body image as it relates to body weight Traditionally, societies with lowered access to food resources will value a higher body weight as attractive (Sobal & Stunkard 1989; Swami & Tove?e, 2005 , 2006; Tove?e et al. 2006). This indicates that body size and attractiveness are associated through social construction rather through instinctual associations. However, as suggested by Swami, Knight , Tovee, Davies, and Furnham (2007), societies that previously had food shortage issues are now becoming more Westernized and media influences are changing the perception of body size in relationship to BMI. Gillan and Lefkowitz (2009) studied the effect of exterior forces on the perception of body image. They relate that women are more concerned with their looks due to a higher level of messages that are related to their physical appearance. However, influences from family will more often have a positive effect on satisfaction about physical appearance, while influences from peers and from the media will have a negative impact on body image. Ethnic origins were used as one measure in order to create categorization and it was discovered that there was little significance in differences between the responses in regard to ethnic origin. African American women are less typically concerned with body shape as are Caucasian women due to cultural differences through commonly held social ideals within various communities (Sheffield, Tse, & Sofronoff, 2005). Shepelliak (2006) studied the correlation between body dissatisfaction and lost self esteem in non-Caucasian women in American college students. The result of the study concluded that there was no difference observed in body image between Caucasian and African American students at Pace University. The research concluded that this might be due to the interracial integration that an enclosed community accomplishes. Self-esteem was measured with insignificant differences in levels between ethnic differences, but was measured as adversely affected by lowered body image across cultural lines. In a study done by Swami, Knight , Tovee, Davies, and Furnham (2007) suggests that is no longer just Western society that is being influenced by the media in regard to the relationship with thin body shape to physical attractiveness. In a study that investigated the perceptions of attractiveness between Britain and Samoa of the South Pacific, the previously observed desire for a larger body type in Samoa has been altered as there is now no difference between the perceived attractiveness of body size in Britain compared to the results in Samoa. A large scale study done by Swami et al (2010) concluded that it is not cultural differences that predict differences in body size in relation to ethnic difference, but economic status. A report of 7,434 participants who were surveyed across 10 different major world regions determined that it was high socio-economic status that determined a thinner body weight as more attractive, where regions with lower socio-economic status admired a bit more weight on the female body, most likely indicative of the association with more food, meaning more means in which to provide food. 2.4 Body weight and its correlation to body image satisfaction In 2004, Cash, Morrow, Perry, and Hrabosky (2004), undertook research into the changes in body image from 1983 until 2001 among men and women of college age. While the personal image of men on their body image had remained relatively stable during the time period, college age women had increased dissatisfaction until the mid 1990’s where their was seen significant improvements until the end of the study, despite increased measures of body weight. As shown in the table from the study (see Appendix 1, Table 1), the increases in body weight can be seen in both black and non-black women (a division made within the study), yet increases are appreciated in overall body image satisfaction. Weeden and Sabini (2005) discuss the relationship in Western society of body image satisfaction to weight. The study conducted for their research discovered that waist-to-hip ratio and waist were the two predominant factors in determining attractiveness where other cues such as symmetry and sex-typical hormonal markers, failed to have a predictive measure. The conclusion of the study suggests that health is the larger factor in determining attractiveness which is often associated with both a lower body weight and a good hip to waist ratio. Swami, Neto, Tovee, and Furnham (2007) examined the body weight preferences in three European countries in order to determine how body weight is measured for attractiveness. The study examined Britain, Spain and Portugal using a rating system for images of women and determined that BMI was a determining factor in judging attractiveness. In Spain and Portugal, WHR was an important factor, but this was not found to be significant in Britain. In all three countries a low BMI was preferable, a slender figure having the best response for attractive factors. In a study conducted by Furnham and Radley (1989), pictures of both 12 male and 12 female body types were shown to participants in a study who rated them for their attractiveness. The pictures had body types ranging from anorexic to obese, and the all the different dimensions in between (see Appendix 1, Table 2). Agreements were reached about the level of attractiveness of extremely thin or extremely obese body types, but there were fast variations in the responses to the moderate body types. Tovee and Cornelissen (2001) used both frontal view and profile view in assessing body image and discovered that profile view had no significance in determine the attractiveness of a body shape. WHR and BMI were also measured, and BMI was the deciding factor when determining body shape. While BMI has been the leading indicator in determining attractiveness of females for both males and females, when studying WHR without reference to BMI, lower WHR ratios were considered far more attractive to males than higher WHR ratios. A WHR of .70 is considered to be the level for indications of both health and fertility. In showing men and women images of WHR at a level of .70 and of levels slightly higher at .73 to .74, males found the lower WHR more attractive than did females. This might indicate a natural attraction to bodies that are more suitable for breeding purposes (Rempala and Garvey 2007: Henss 1995). 2.5 The imposition of body image focus through media imagery According to Turner, Hamilton, Jacobs, Angood, and Dwyer (1997) there is a direct correlation that can be found between the influence of the media and body dissatisfaction among women. This contributes to the high level of eating disorders that are appreciated in women. In 1960, body distortion issues that lead to eating disorders was relatively low, however due to media influences and the changes in fashion, eating disorders have increased significantly since that time (Johnson and Petri 1995: Feingold and Mazzella 1998: Glauert, Rhodes, Byrne, Fink, and Grammer. 2009). Physical activity as it relates to body image was studied by Tavaris et al (2004) in relation to the desire to look like media images in teenage participants. The total number of hours devoted to physical activity per week was averaged at 12.4 hours for girls and 15.2 hours for boys through a study of 11,606 boys and girls between the ages of 9-16 who expressed a desire to look like subject of media attention such as celebrities and athletes. The study concludes that healthy physical representations in the media is crucial in encouraging healthy lifestyles in pre-pubescent and adolescent children. The media is perceived for giving far more negative images than the influences of families and friends who routinely attempt to give more positive images to their female family members. Ironically, the media has a more powerful influence over female perceptions of their own body image in comparison to those who they perceive as having achieved a higher level of success in life through their appearance in the media (Abbott and Barber 2010). 2.6 Female body perceptions and the crisis state as opposed to male concepts of body perception In a report by Fallon and Rozin (1985), the differences in male and female perceptions of their own body type suggests that while men are content with their bodies and perceive that women actually like a larger male body than indicated by research, women perceive that men like a smaller body type for women than indicated by research and are therefore always under pressure to lose weight. Fallon and Rozin conclude that this perception accounts for the high number of eating disorder issues that are within the female gender over the much lower rate as observed in men (see Appendix 1 Table 3). The expected observance of attraction is vastly different in men than is within women, thus creating a paradox in which the woman never meets her own expectation of what she erroneously believes that a man will want from her in terms of attractive body representation. Prevos (2005) challenges the conclusions of Fallon and Rozin however and suggests that the fallacy in their assumption is in the idea that women desire to be thin is based upon perceptions of the desires of men. He suggests that peer pressure from other women has more influence on the dissatisfaction of women for their body shape than does a perceived concept that men are more attracted to very thin bodies. 2.7 Body distortion and eating disorders While most studies have found little difference in body shape perceptions due to ethnic differences, Demarist and Allen (2000) discovered that there is a higher incidence of body distortion among Caucasian women than among African American women. African American women have a better understanding of the desires of men in regard to body shape than do Caucasian women. Younger participants across races had a higher incidence of body distortion than did older women within the study. Because of the prevalence of body distortion in Western societies and the consistency of body dissatisfaction, the condition is now referred to as “normative discontent” (Glauert, Rhodes, Byrne, Fink, and Grammer. 2009). Where traditionally European ethnic heritage women have been the highest known sufferers of eating disorders, a study done in South Africa found an emergence of eating disorders starting in the 1990’s amongst South Africans of African ethnicity. The study observed a rate of 72% of European ancestry women in South Africa to have a desire to be more thin with a rate of 66% of African ancestry ethnicity having a desire to be more thin. The study shows that homogenization of cultural norms is taking place with Western ideals infecting those of cultures of origin (Szabo and Allwood 2006). 2.8 Summary The findings of the literature review reveal an important gap in the way in which body image is studied. While qualitative reviews are capable of showing how body image is assessed, using quantitative methods through CDFRS provides a limited point of view on understanding body image. The literature that was reviewed were all done with validity according to recommended standards. However, the experience of body image cannot be properly assessed through the CDFRS. The studies show that Westernization and a globally interconnected community has spread lowering of body image throughout the world. While not all cultures are yet affected by the pressures put on Western women through the media, there are few that have not experienced this pressure. Women of different ethnic origins who once had different levels of body image issues than each other are now homogenizing through the singular point of view that the media perpetuates. In addition, age is now not allowing for differences in body image perception. Therefore, the world is in a crisis as only a thin body is acceptable as attractive, thus leaving a great many people in the world outside of the sphere of attractiveness. This creates a series of social problems that must be addressed including which include eating disorders and low self-esteem. 3.0 Findings 3.1 Introduction Body image satisfaction is lower in females than in males with women receiving more negative messages than men. The messages vary from where these messages are received, but do not often vary in content and are not defined by ethnic origin. The link between attractiveness and success is dependent upon the fashion of body weight in defining what portion of the population is considered appropriate for success (Bree and Barber 2010). 3.2 Body Image perception The body image is the first way in which attraction is measured. For females, the body image is determined in most Western cultures as dependent upon a lower BMI. WHR has had little effect on differentiating attraction, but when it is isolated as a reason for determining attractiveness, men will be more attracted to a lower WHR than one that is even slightly increased (Tassinary and Hansen 1988: Wetsman and Marlowe 1999: Manning, Singh, and Thornhill 1999). Males and females have an almost equitable view, however, on what constitutes an attractive body shape. Differentiations are only minor, suggesting that media influences have infiltrated the fashion of body shape for both males and females. Body image satisfaction is lower in females than in males which may be due to the perception of the higher value that males put on female attractiveness(Maisey, Vale, Cornelissen, and Tovee 1999). The higher the dissatisfaction that a female has about her body image, the lower her self-esteem will plummet (Fisak, Tantleff-Dunn, and Peterson 2007). Socio-economic factors have more influence on how are perceived for their body image and it is highly associated with the level of weight that the individual carries. Weight has a high importance in both male and female perceptions, although females will more often determine that lower weight is more attractive to moderate or higher weight. This is a variation from the male perspective that will often associate moderate weights as attractive more often than females. When Westernized values and influences are introduced into a society, lower body weights will begin to take on a higher importance concerning attractiveness. Studies have shown that attractiveness is more often associated with socio-economic levels. As food is scarce and the socio-economic level of the region is low, higher body weights will have more value in discerning attractiveness. In higher socio-economic regions, lower weight is considered a more attractive feature. Culture is far less influential than is socio-economic status (Sobal & Stunkard 1989; Swami & Tove?e, 2005 , 2006; Tove?e et al. 2006). Males are highly interested in the attractiveness of their potential mate, often assigning the highest importance to this trait. Males have a wider definition of attractive body types, but still will more often choose lower body weight body types as attractive (Fisak, Tantleff-Dunn, and Peterson 2007). 4. 0 Conclusions The study of body image attractiveness is centered upon the position of weight in regard to the discussion. However, when using body image drawings of people with varieties of weights as the only criteria from which to judge the issue, that will be the issue from which the discussion will be produced. These types of studies might be better conducted with variations that include a number of attractive factors such as facial symmetry, hygiene, and the beauty of eyes and smiles in order to balance body size. Another type of study might focus on the neck in regard to attractiveness with faces that have no double chin being put into contrast with those with double chins. With limited drawings that only focus on body size, that is the only topic that will be used in determining attractiveness. Because fashion dictates it to be so, thin bodies will more often be chosen in a survey type study because other factors are not put into consideration. This perpetuates the myth that the more attractive people in the world are always the ones with lower body weights. With this stereotype hanging over the truth, body image issues will continue to grow and perpetuate the increases in eating disorders that can be observed when Western media is exposed to cultures. In order to appropriately study the issue, the way in which body image and attractiveness is studied must be revised. Using something other than the contour drawings must be tried which will provide a more well-rounded decision about what shapes are attractive and why those shapes are more attractive. Bibliography Abbott B.D. and B. L. Barber. 2010. Embodied image: gender differences in functional and aesthetic body image among Australian adolescents. Body Image. Vol. 7, No. 1. pp. 22-31. Algars, Monica, Pekka Santtila, Markus Varjonen, Katarina Witting, Ada Johansson, Patrick Jern and N. Kenneth Sandnabba 2009. The Adult Body: How Age, Gender, and Body Mass Index Are Related to Body Image. Journal of Aging Health. Vol. 21. pp. 1112. Bree D. Abbott and Bonnie L. Barber. 2010. 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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, Vol. 269, 2205–2213. Tovee, Martin J. Piers L. Cornelissen. 2001. Female and male perceptions of female physical attractiveness in front-view and profile. British Journal of Psychology. Vol. 91. pp. 391-402. Turner, S., H. Hamilton, M. Jacobs, L. M. Angood, & D. H. Dwyer. 1997. The influence of fashion magazines on the body image satisfaction of college women: An exploratory analysis. Adolescence. Vol. 32, No. 127. pp. 603-614. Weeden, Jason and John Sabini. 2005. Physical attractiveness and health in Western societies: A review. Psychological Bulletin. Vol. 131, No. 5. pp 635-653. Wetsman, A. and F. Marlowe. 1999. How universal are preferences for female waist-to- hip ratios? Evidence from the Hadza of Tanzania. Evolution and Human Behavior. Vol. 20. pp. 219–228. Appendix 1 Tables and Charts Table 1 (Cash et al 2004, p. 1084) Table 2 (Furnham and Radley 1989, p. 655) Table 3 (Fallon and Rozin 1985, p. 103) Table 4. (Fisak, Tantleff-Dunn, and Peterson 2007, p. 215) Table 5 (Fisak, Tantleff-Dunn, and Peterson 2007, p. 216) Read More