Types of Vaccines and Immunization - Thesis Example

Running head: Vaccines Name: University: Course: Tutor: Date of Submission: Introduction The term vaccine in the medical field refers to any biological preparation that is basically made to improve the immunity to a particular disease. The term vaccine was first used by Edward Jenner’s in the year 1796 through the use of the term cow pox from Latin language that was provided to human beings to provide them with the protection against small pox (Marshall,23-65). In twentieth century, there came the introduction of more several vaccines which included the protection against diseases like measles, diphtheria and rubella. Another development made in the field was the polio vaccine in the year 1950 which saw the eradication of small pox in the year 1960 and 1970(Stern,611-621). Types of vaccines There are different types of vaccines which include passive immunization that do contain the antitoxins and the immunoglobulin that do play a role of providing an immediate source of anti body to the body to create resilience. Passive immunity are immunoglobulin concentrated antibody preparations that do provide the body with an immediate short term protection of the or against the diseases (Marshall,23-65). This kind of vaccine is given to the individuals who face the risk of high severe diseases or those diseases that are developing with serious disease complications (Plotkin & Orenstein,34-45). From their research, most of the vaccines are given to high risk contacts of the cases who were exposed during the infectious period and who are still within a window of time during which it can be effective and this therefore varies according to infection. The passive immunity vaccines do also provide the host with the immediate protection but in a short term period for only weeks or months (Kassianos,34-56). For the cases of measles, mumps and rubella, it is said to last up to one year in infants thus the administration of MMR after the first birthday. In addition to this, they are said not to stimulate the immune system to produce any antibodies. Passive immunity is also characterised by the passage or transfer of for instance maternal anti bodies through the placenta or even in the breast milk. The second one is the active immunization where the live vaccines do work by weakening the organism which does replicate in the host. Another form is the killed or the inactivated or the subunit vaccines (Kassianos,34-56). Toxoid vaccines are those vaccines that are made from toxic compounds that have been inactivated which cause illnesses rather than the micro-organisms themselves. The difference between the two passive and active immunity is that active vaccines are long lasting and they are said to take a long time in the body before they take effect while the passive or the immunoglobulins are characterised by the immediate protection after administration of the pre-formed anti-bodies which only lasts a few weeks although is uncommonly used nowadays (Engdahl, 23-40). Immunization Vaccines are therefore designed to stimulate the immune system that is designed to protect against micro-organisms such like viruses.  Immunization in this therefore refers to the process that confers to the resistance or the decreased susceptibility to the increased infection. When any foreign substance invades in the body, the immune system do activates certain cells which destroy the invader (Marshall,23-65). This activation of the immune system involves two main types of cells: B cells and T cells. B cells make antibodies, molecules that attach to and neutralize viruses that float free in the bloodstream, thereby preventing the viruses from infecting other cells. T cells can be helper cells or killer cells. Helper T cells organize the immune response. Killer T cells attack cells infected by viruses. Immunity is basically a hosts response to antigens when an antigen is a microorganisms such as viruses that do contain many molecules that are seen like foreign to the body of an host. These different molecular shapes are called antigens or the epitopes. The B cells and T cells are activated by recognizing these antigens. Each individual T cell or B cell will only recognize and respond to its individual “destiny antigen”. The immune system then recognizes the vaccine agents as foreign and hence destroys them and then remembers them (Kassianos,34-56). The virulent version for the agent will then come along the body and recognize the protein coat on the virus hence becomes prepared to respond by either neutralizing the target agent before it can enter into the cells or through recognizing and destroying the infected cells prior to the agent multiplication into vast numbers (Marshall, 23-65). In cloning, once a T cell or B cell is activated by its destiny antigen, the B or T cell clones itself making many duplicate copies of itself. Some of these cloned T cells are known to attack and destroy cells infected by the invading virus. Other cloned B or T cells remain in the body as memory cells. In regard to immunity, incase the body is re-invaded by the virus in the future, the memory cells will be reactivated and respond faster and more powerfully to destroy the virus. This is the principle behind vaccines, such as the vaccinations we received in childhood against measles or mumps ( World Health Organization,45-100). Two or more vaccines cannot be mixed in the same formulation for they can interfere. This usually happen for instance when the attenuated vaccines where one of the vaccines components seem to be more robust than the others and therefore suppresses the growth and even the immune response of the other vaccine component. This can be reaffirmed by the case study of the trivalent Sabin polio vaccine when the serotype 2 virus amount in the vaccine was reduced to stop its interference with the take of serotype 1 and 2 vaccine virus. If the body is re-invaded by the virus in the future, the memory cells will be reactivated and respond faster and more powerfully to destroy the virus. This is the principle behind vaccines, such as the vaccinations we received in childhood against measles or mumps (Stern & Markel, 611-621). Levels of immunity The level of the response to vaccination can be measured by determining how good the vaccine is through immunogenicity which implies to the measuring of the capacity of an antigen to elicit an immune response for instance GMTs, the seroconversion and the seroprotection. The vaccine response can also be measured through efficacy where the capacity of the vaccine in provision of protection from the diseases under controlled conditions like the randomized controlled trial. Thirdly, the response to vaccination or the goodness of the vaccination can be determined through the clinical effectiveness (Stern & Markel, 611-621). Vaccines do initiate an immune response in the hosts’ body. In many occasions, this level of immune response for instance the seroprotective threshold is therefore well established for some vaccines like the hepatitis B vaccine. If the generation of the immune response is at or above this threshold therefore mean that the vaccine will in this case confer protection ( World Health Organization,45-100). The immunogenicity also determines the efficacy of the vaccine and the effectiveness of the vaccine. Immunogenicity in this case refers to the capacity of an antigen to elicit or produce an immune response while seropositivity refers to the presence of detectable specific antibodies in the serum as a result of infection or immunization. If the body is re-invaded by the virus in the future, the memory cells will be reactivated and respond faster and more powerfully to destroy the virus. This is the principle behind vaccines, such as the vaccinations we received in childhood against measles or mumps. Measuring vaccine response Immunogenicity of the vaccine can too be measured by seroconversion in which the development of detectable specific antibodies in the serum as a result of the infection or immunization (Collier, 45-60).The subject in this case will be seen to move from situation where no antibodies could be detected to where antibodies can now be detected. In regard to seroprotection, the diseases in factor will question on the presence of specific antibodies in the serum at least a level that is known to protect against the disease ((Engdahl, 23-40). In addition to these, other factors that do influence the immune response to vaccination include the vaccine age where the age of the new born determine by the presence of the maternal antibodies that can inhibit the immune process of vaccination(Engdahl, 23-40). Also, the age of the newborn affects the non-response to T-independent antigens while in the elderly; there is a sign of weakened immune system. Another factor that affects the immune response to vaccination is the immunodeficiency where by relative non-response to vaccination for killed vaccines or antigenic fractions particularly for the polysaccharide vaccine and the contraindication of live vaccines (Stern & Markel, 611-621). . The genetic factor affect the immune response to vaccination when the immune response of the same antigen can is low or high. Nutritional state of the host play an important role too in that malnutrition can be responsible for relative deficiency of cellular immunity. The issue of underlying illnesses may too result in indifferent immune response (Engdahl, 23-40). In regard to the vaccine, dose and administration route do influence the immune response to vaccination in that the vaccines should be administered according to the instructions of the manufacturer basing on the route at a specific dose. Storage of the vaccines must be in line with the vaccine where most of the vaccines range between +2 and +8 degrees Celsius which affect the loss of proteins at either lower or higher temperatures (Halloran, Longini & Struchiner, 23-45). Conclusion In conclusion, immunity occurs when the proportions of peoples immune to an infection is sufficiently high so that the transmission of the infection is host facing the threat is greatly reduced thus reducing the chances of the occurrence of the diseases. They have led to reduction in death, suffering, and deformity as a result of vaccines that have been effective. Annotated Bibliography Stern, Markel. "The history of vaccines and immunization: familiar patterns, new challenges". Chicago: University of Chicago, 2005: 611–621. The book traces the history of vaccines from the first vaccine to the hazards of immunization. In addition, the author analyzes types of vaccines which include passive immunization that do contain the antitoxins and the immunoglobulin that do play a role of providing an immediate source of anti body to the body to create resilience. Plotkin, Stanley, P & Orenstein, Walter. Vaccines. Publisher: Elsevier Health Sciences, 2008:34-45 The authors of this book offer a comprehensive and current coverage of every aspect of vaccination-from development to use in reducing disease. In addition, it provides to the readers in-depth information on vaccine production, available preparations, efficacy, and safety. Moreover, it gives recommendations for vaccine use as well as instructions for vaccines administration. Engdahl, Sylvia. Types of Vaccines, Immuzation and vaccine administration. New York: Gale, 2008:23-40 The book is a comprehensive coverage on the types of vaccines existing and vaccines currently under research as well as those in developmental stage. The authors of the book examines vaccine stability, immunogenicity, efficacy, duration of immunity, adverse events, indications, contraindications, precautions, administration with other vaccines, and disease control strategies World Health Organization. Immunization in practice: a practical guide for health Staff. Publisher: World Health Organization, 2004:45-100 The article covers a comprehensive practical guide for district and health care facility nurses on immunization, importance of vaccines and their administration. It provides education, recommendations on how nurses can improve immunization services as way of reaching more infants in a sustainable and suitable way by building upon the experiences of polio eradication. It includes materials on planning, monitoring and use of data to improve the service which can be used at any health care center by any nurse Kassianos, George C. Immunization: childhood and travel health.4th ed. New York: Wiley- Blackwell, 2001:34-56 The book is a thorough introduction to the history of immunization, vaccine technology and immunology. The book covers a comprehensive overview of various types of vaccines separately, including contraindications, local and general side and adverse effects, administration advice, special precautions and notes, vaccine availability, storage, and well-referenced comments on issues surrounding each vaccine, including controversies. Collier, James L. Vaccines. Publisher: Elsevier Health Sciences, 2008:45-60 Collier in his book explains in details the history of vaccines, the diseases that led to the invention as well as discovery of vaccines, how vaccines work and how they have changed the history of medicine. The book analysis in depth the advancements in vaccines and how they have impacted on major outbreaks. In his book he describes the impact of vaccines on major diseases such as smallpox, the Black Death rabies, cholera, diphtheria, influenza, Ebola and AIDS. The book offers a broader scope of research for nursing students and students in medicine field in tracing history of diseases. Marshall, Gary S. The vaccine handbook: a practical guide for clinicians. London: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003:23-65 The vaccine handbook draws together authoritative information about vaccines for nurses and doctors working in the field of medicine or nursing. The book gives a practical guide and advice for nurses and doctors in understanding the role of vaccines. The author discusses the disease, its epidemiology, its vaccine’s, efficacy and safety. In addition, the handbook offers practical guide question frequently asked about the vaccine’s use, problems such as allergies, breastfeeding, dosing intervals and missed vaccines, and immunocom promised individuals Halloran, Elizabeth M , Longini, Ira M & Struchiner, Claudio, J (2009).Design and Analysis of Vaccine Studies. New York: Springer, 2009:23-45 The Journal discusses the effects of immunization and challenges. The book covers many different vaccine effects, including vaccine efficacy for susceptibility, for disease, for post-infection outcomes, and for infectiousness. The book includes methods for evaluating indirect, total and overall effects of vaccination programs in populations. .  Read More