The Sciences: Inquiry, Innovation and Invention - Research Paper Example

Running head: The Sciences The Sciences Abstract The paper answers a few questions related to the subject of Geography, Specifically Continental Drift, Plate Tectonics, scientific method and issues such as non renewable energy. The Sciences Describe geographic evidence collected in the last part of the 20th century to support the theory of continental drift. The continental drift theory was put forward by Alfred Wegener at the start of 20th century. The main idea was that continents on Earth were joined but gradually all the continents started moving apart and this process took millions of years. This can be explained by the fact that the fossils and rock structures found on shores of different continents, which are distant from each other, are similar. It took long time for the scientists to accept the idea but evidence related to the movement of continents over tectonic plates is now extensively available in the form of scientific data. Another major evidence supporting continental drift is the manner in which glacial sediments of Permo-Carboniferous era are distributed in India, Antarctica, Australia, Africa, Madagascar, South America and Arabia. Moreover, according to Kearey et al (2009), glacier continuity due to deposits of tillites and the oriental glacial striations suggest that there existed a super-continent of Gondwana which is the central element of the theory of continental drift. Why do scientist today accept the movement of continents but did not accept this theory back in Wegner's time. Accorrding to Le Grand (1988), in 1924 when Wegener’s book was translated in French, Spanish, English and Russian languages, the suggestion that continents moved was ridiculed by the scientific community. One of the major issues with the concept was that it did not explain the driving mechanism behind continental drift. Until 1960, the driving mechanism remained unexplained. Although Wegner had made claims based on the data of continents, but since the oceans cover 70% of the surface of the Earth, the proof remained hidden in the ocean floor. After Wegener’s theory was published, many technical and scientific developments took place which allowed the scientists to find out more about the ocean floor and identify the paleomagnetic reversals in the submerged rocks. Fowler (1990) states mapping the ocean floor and paleomagnetic reversals provided additional evidence about continent drift to geologists. Describe the process of the scientific method and theory development The process which is used by scientists to collectively construct the real representation of the various natural processes is called scientific method, and it comprises of primarily four steps - 1. Observing and explaining the phenomena 2. Formulating the hypothesis to describe the phenomena 3. Using hypothesis to forecast the existence of some similar phenomena 4. Conducting tests for those predictions through experiments If tests or experiments confirm the hypothesis, it is considered to be a law. On the other hand, if the experiment does not confirm the hypothesis, it is either modified or rejected. Documents of using empirical methods have been found in ancient Egypt wherein ancient Egyptians used scientific method in astronomy, medicines and mathematics. In the 6th century BC, Greek philosopher Thales refused to believe in religious, supernatural and mythological assumptions, and claimed natural phenomena can be explained by a natural cause. The deductive reasoning developed by Plato is considered very important in the development of scientific method as well. How does the scientific method help us understand the natural world? The scientific method creates models for natural phenomena that can be verified through experiments. Scientific method is tested through inspection, data recording and assessment of the data which can be replicated by other scientists as well. The scientific method is based on inductive and deductive reasoning that helps to create useful and dependable models of nature and natural processes. Inductive reasoning is based on the verification of certain instances to develop the theory or the hypothesis, while deductive reasoning is the method which uses a theory to explain certain results. Describe how plate tectonics provides the mechanism for continental drift. The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth’s crust is broken into six large plates and some broken into smaller ones. Schubert et al (2001) believe the plate may have ocean floors or part of islands and continents attached to it. The boundaries which is found in-between the plates form the mid oceans ridges, which is the place where the new oceanic crust forms when these plates move away from each other. The young mountains and ocean trenches are formed at places where these plates merge and older crust is overridden and move to the interiors. On the other hand, large faults are formed when the plates move in a horizontal direction past each other such as California’s San Andreas. How do plate tectonics explain the process of continental drift Plate tectonics is based on the concept that the Earth’s surface is created from plates which continuously move. These plates move very slightly. Earth was once made from one large continent named Pangea. The main plate tectonics principle is that the lithosphere is made up of separate tectonic plates which move through fluid like environment called asthenosphere. The area where the two plates come together is called the plate boundary, and these boundaries are associated with the various geographical events such as formation of mountains, earthquakes and volcanoes. Tectonic plates can move as the lithosphere has high strength and low density as compared to the underlying asthenosphere. The density variation of the mantle causes convection. How do plate tectonics explain natural landforms like the Himalayas and the ring of fire in the Pacific Ocean? If two plates of continental lithosphere come together, it creates the continental collision margin and it can be characterized by fold thrust mountain belt which are developed at the collision zones, according to Stanley (2005). The Himalayas were formed from the collision of Eurasia and India. Additionally, most earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur on the specified areas such as the plate boundaries. One such region is the Pacific Ring of Fire which is the place where the Pacific Plate collides with the surrounding plates. It is volcanically and seismically active zone and it was created as a direct effect of plate tectonics, from the collision of lithosphere plates. Twiss and Moores (1992) believe that the Eastern sections of ring are formed from the Cocos Plate and Nazca Plate, which are subducted below the westward moving plate that is the South American Plate. Can science help answer questions about how or if we should be using non-renewable energy resources? To support your answer select one example; Oil in the Alaskan National Wildlife Refuge Non-renewable resources cannot be grown, regenerated or produced, and once it depletes, it will not be available for future needs. Fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are two non-renewable sources of energy. According to science, non renewable energy should be replaced by renewable energy such as solar or wind energy, before the Earth runs out of fossil fuels, bringing the global transport and power generation to a standstill. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) drilling has been a controversial political issue since 1977 in the US. It covers 19,000,000 acres at the north Alaskan coast and the main debate is over the drilling of 1002 ANWR area, which has huge reserves of economically viable oil. However drilling oil there may threaten wildlife and natural ecological balance in the region. USGS estimated in 1998 that Arctic National Wildlife Refuge has 16.0 billion barrels of natural gas and crude oil in its coastal region. However, contrary to what several advocates of drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge claim, the Energy Information Administration has found drilling in Arctic National Wildlife Refuge may not affect the global rates of crude oil. Hence, the scientific evidence provided by prestigious organizations such as Energy Information Administration and USGS give a clearer picture on whether drilling should be initiated in ANWR. References Le Grand, H. E. (1988). Drifting Continents and Shifting Theories. New York: Cambridge University Press Fowler, C.M.R. (1990). The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global Geophysics, New York: Cambridge University Press Kearey, P. Klepeis, K.A., Vine, F.J. (2009). Global Tectonics, Chichester: Wiley Schubert, G. Turcotte, Donald L. Olson, P. (2001). Mantle Convection in the Earth and Planets, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Stanley, S. M. (2005). Earth System History, New York: W. H. Freeman Twiss, R.J. and Moores, E.M.. (1992). Structural Geology, New York: W.H. Freeman Read More