Families: What Are They - Essay Example

Families: What are they? The American Heritage Dictionary (AHD, 2000) has a number of definitions for the word “family” as it applies to human beings. It is a fundamental social group in society which typically consists of one or two parents and their children. It can also be two or more people who share goals and values, have long-term commitments to one another, and reside usually in the same dwelling place. It can also refer to all the members of a household under one roof or it can be a group of persons sharing common ancestry. Diem (1997), a political scientist on the other hand, says the definition of what a family is depends on who is going to provide the definition, a social scientist, the State, a conservative society, or a libertarian society. Anthropologists define family by a cultures biological and marital kinship rules and patterns of reciprocal obligations. Different cultures have different definitions of biological and marital kin, and the obligations kin have to one another. Some cultures use the father’s biological line, or the mother’s or both. Kinship obligations, too, end at different levels for different cultures. As examples, Diem says that brothers, sisters and cousins are distinct in the American culture but not so in African societies. From the point of view of structure-functionalists, families are defined by the needs of the greater society. The definition of family changes when society’s needs change. Examples include those when greater society needs rapid population growth such as after a time of war when procreation is emphasized, as against a period of over population when childless couples are supported. For institutionalists, a family is the "traditional," biological, procreative and child-rearing structure. For interactionists, the definition is based on the assumption of family-related role behaviours. For economists, the family is a production and consumption unit, thus defining a household slave in an African or Arabian household or the indentured servant in an early-American household as part of the family. Further, according to Diem, the State’s definition of family follows the structure-functionalist approach, where the State’s needs dictate how the authoritative and legal definition of family shall be formulated. In a Conservative Free Society, as envisioned by Nisbet (1953), where the role of social institutions such as church, economy and educational system, are enhanced and those of the State reduced, the social institutions define family. Church may not recognise an unmarried couple as a family. The economic system may have different definitions for child labour in industrial and agricultural production. In a Libertarian Free Society, the needs of individuals are the priority, where individuals define family for themselves, according to interactional, situational, psychoanalytical and social-psychological conceptions. Whatever definition one chooses to use for the term family as applied to human beings, it will always depict a social structure where family members are related in some way and interact with each other to serve individual, family, society, State or other greater structure needs. Gender Roles in Families Gender roles are sets of behavioural patterns particularly associated with males or females in a given social structure. These often include the division of labour between the sexes and the socialisation process from early childhood to maturity, in order to perpetuate the behavioural patterns Traditional gender roles are distinctly feminine or masculine. However, in many modern societies, biological gender no longer determines the roles individuals can perform (NEW, 2008). According to Lewis (1994), traditional gender roles have considerable broken down as women’s access education increased which allowed them to enter the labour force in larger numbers. Although motherhood is a natural biological female role and is considered as the primary form of self-realisation for females, more and more Chilean women choose to have fewer children than the previous generation. Child-rearing, too, are no longer the focus of mothers who work, rather, preschools, day care and extended families are utilised for child care support in modern Chilean society. In a study conducted by Knodel et al (2004) regarding gender roles in Vietnam over four decades, reveal the relative continuity of traditional gender roles. Wives continue to be responsible for household chores with minimal increase in the involvement of husbands in these chores. However, without any decrease in women’s involvement in specific roles, in the most recent decade, there are significant increases in the involvement of husbands in the household budget and child rearing. The study concludes that despite major changes in the economy, the gender gap in education and employment, the opening up of society to global influences, and efforts to change attitudes and practices related to gender roles, continuity rather than change is most evident in Vietnam. Although the role of women outside the family has markedly changed, their role within the family continues to be consistent with cultural tradition. According to Smith (1999), in American society, among the most fundamental changes over the last generation has been the redefinition the roles of men and women and husbands and wives. Traditional role perspectives have been replaced by a modern perspective wherein there is much less gender role specification, although Americans seem to want the best of traditional and modern perspectives. They are optimistic that children and the family do not suffer if a wife and mother works, but are not likely to assert that a woman needs to work. Most Americans disagree with the traditional pattern of a husband working and a wife staying home, but few disagree that what most women is a home and children. Different cultures have different gender roles for their defined family structures. As the definition of family is mostly dictated by the needs of a society and its culture, so are gender roles within the family in a particular culture. However, even with high impact changes in society which provides the external environment for families, tradition seems to be a strong influence in defining gender roles within the family structure. Diverse Styles of Parenting Parenting styles are the strategies parents use in raising their children. According to the best-selling author, Dr. Thomas Phelan (2008), adults naturally have personalities or temperaments that predispose them toward one parenting style or another. He defines three parenting styles. Authoritarian parenting emphasises discipline and authoritarian parents are demanding, intimidating and require obedience and respect as primary duties of children, without explaining the reasons for their expectations. Children of authoritarian parents see parental love and acceptance as conditional. Individuality and independence of children are irrelevant to the authoritarian parent. On the other hand, permissive parenting over emphasises the self-esteem side. Permissive parents are warm and supportive but are not good disciplinarians. Demands for good behaviour are weak and bad behaviour is ignored. Love and acceptance is unconditional in the worst sense because there are no rules or limits on what children can do. The middle and more ideal ground is authoritative parenting. Authoritative parents provide for both the self-esteem and discipline needs of children. They clearly communicate high but realistic demands on their children’s behaviour, give positive encouragement for good behaviour, respond with firm limits during bad behaviour without fits of temper, are sensitive to their child’s needs, and are supportive of individuality and growing independence of the child. Culturally diverse societies employ different parenting styles, usually influenced by their traditional cultures. According to Harry (2008), African-American, Asian and Hispanic families employ parenting styles tending towards the authoritarian style, while those of Caucasian Americans tend to be the authoritative or democratic style. In another study by Longest et al (2007), results reveal that there are differences in the way African-American mothers interact with their male children in contrast to white parents. African American mothers display negativity and detachment but are more active in their parenting style than are white parents who were found extremely inactive in parenting male children. Longest et al suggest that differences in parenting practices and styles used among ethnic groups are more adaptive strategies, rather than deficits. As with the definition of family and gender roles in families, parenting styles are also employed that address the needs of the individual child, the family and the greater society to which they belong. Cross-cultural Similarities of Family Practice Culture is the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought which are considered as the expression of a particular period, class, community, or greater society (AHD, 2000). As such, different communities would have different cultures. The cultural setting responds to the community or society’s needs from which traditions are formed. Since the scope and behavior of the family entity, as discussed earlier, are according to the dictates of societal needs and cultural norms, family practices are also necessarily influenced by the same needs and norms. Cross-cultural similarities though are apparent in various aspects. In the definition of family, which can be viewed as the primary social structure to which an individual belongs, the variations of definition apply across cultures. An child who has one or two biological parents interacting with him/her on a day-to-day basis, belongs to that family. An orphan child interacting with others who are not biologically related to him, whether foster parents or in an orphanage, belong to that family. This phenomenon is accepted across cultures. Relationship development starts with the core/primary relationships upon which increasingly more complex relationships are built - affective development, cognitive development, social problem solving, peer relationships and the development of morals and ethics (Reebye, n.d.) Gender roles in families are again influenced by culture and societal needs across cultures. There is cross-cultural similarity in how gender roles within families are taken on not only by parents but family members as well and whoever takes on the role is influenced both by tradition and the state of the society. If the tradition is for distinct male and female roles, vestiges of this tradition are hung onto even while roles are adjusted to fit current societal needs. This is apparent in different cultures studied as previously mentioned. Likewise, although the types of parenting practices and styles are deemed universal as consisting of authoritarian, permissive or democratic, across cultures, the choice of a parenting practice or a combination of styles is influenced by social, and cultural practices and beliefs (Reebye, n.d.) Impact of Technology on Children and Families As rapid technological advances have impacted businesses around the world, more so have they been felt in day to day lives of families. Dr. Heller (2008) writes that parents have discovered that traveling with children is more pleasant when they are occupied with a video which has brought about an increase in purchases of DVD players for cars. This has caused disagreement from child development experts who believe that this is another form of isolation of parents from children, similar to the effect of television watching, which is a passive process that does not engage the child’s mind. In a media release of the Families Commission (2006) regarding a study of families in New Zealand, it was revealed that internet access can improve communication between family members. Migrant families particularly benefit because the internet bridges geographical separation. However, the study also showed that the digital divide is widened with low-income families being unable to afford computers and internet access, as well as serious concerns about cyber safety and gaming. Despite the concern for cyber safety, there is also no doubt that the internet has broadened research capabilities not only of children but all individuals because of the relative availability of information. Cellular phones provide immediate access of parents to their children wherever they may be. However, the same phones are also accessible to whomever a child gives his/her number to. The above examples are but a few of the effects of technology on children and families. Almost all technological innovations seek to serve a positive purpose but these advances do have their disadvantages. It is therefore incumbent on parents and those who perform parent roles to manage the use of technology for their children as well as rear their children in the wise use of technology. Media and Families In a paper by Gale & Jarvis (2004), they cited the increasing media attack on family values. Media have increasingly become hostile to basic, universal family values and roles where motherhood is maligned, fathers are caricatured as idiots, or children are portrayed as knowing more about life than adults. Media stories often promote meanness, stupidity, exploitation, cynicism and despair and those who consistently expose themselves to this type of media will lose confidence in humanity and the worth of family life. Because of these, they propose strategies to promote family-friendly media. These are by identifying and communicating world-wide commonalities, and shared beliefs in basic family values; creating and using stories and storytelling in support of family values; creating local, low-cost productions of family-friendly media; identifying existing family-friendly media and providing the means for easily accessing them; re-purposing existing, family-friendly media in multiple languages and providing additional cultural information to extend the usefulness of such programs across languages and cultures; agitating for the creation of family-friendly media from existing production firms; conducting media research to point out potential media problems for children and families, as well as recommending solutions; and producing programs that promote practices which universally strengthen families. Indeed, media which are not friendly to children and families have proliferated, much more so than those which are friendly. However, the availability and diversity of media sources have also definite advantages for children and families in terms of knowledge about the world around them. Again, it is a parenting task to manage media usage for children. Impact of Demographic Changes on Children and Families In an IMF Paper prepared by Batini et al (2006), they mentioned that the world is in the midst of a major demographic transition. There is population aging in industrial countries which will reduce growth in these countries over time, but will boost growth in developing countries as the relative size of their working-age population increases. Demographic change will also affect saving, investment, and capital flows, implying changes in global trade balances and asset prices, as well as future productivity growth and country external risk for the developing country region. Population aging will mean less youngsters, which may be beneficial in that the youngsters could be better taken care of. However, population aging will also likely reduce per capita growth. For families this means less wealth to spend for family improvement. Increases in the size of the working age population in developing countries will lead to stronger per capita growth, which would mean the opposite, but would also mean close to attaining developed status with its attendant problems related to children and families as earlier pointed out in Western cultures. In effect there would be a shift in the nature of family experiences as they are today in the industrial countries and the developing countries. And in a similar way that industrial societies have progressed from traditional to adaptive modern ways, so will the developing countries also adapt to their changing environment. Family-related advantages and disadvantages will be experience by both industrial and developing countries as demographic changes occur. Effect of Globalisation Families are undergoing change around the world in many forms. There are new types of new types of publicly accepted relationships and living arrangements, an increase in households headed by females; an increase in divorce rates, lower fertility rates, new forms of extended families and more attention to children’s rights. There is also the prevalent globalisation trend which affects families and economics, information flow and concepts of self, territory and space. According to Ahmad (2004), globalisation, which diminishes the role of the state, enhances the role of the family institution. The family is the most immediate institution that can provide moral and welfare support to citizens affected by globalisation such as how families of individuals who have elected to work overseas in greener pastures have been doing. Ahmad suggests therefore, that should encourage a vibrant and independent family institution for its citizens to successfully handle the effects of gloablisation. Kime (2008), asserts that globalisation is negatively affecting families. Family farmers in Arizona have been replaced by large corporate farms, thus family farmers which cultivate family values have been marginalise. Kime argues that family farmers who are family-oriented, ethical and hardworking provided the backbone and cultural classroom of America. All these are being eroded by globalisation. According to Reed (2006), globalisation is characterised by secularism, radicalism, cynical liberalism and commercialisation, and has redefined Singaporean family values. Singaporeans have become cynical about family, marriage, children and old aged parents and place more importance on selfish objectives than on the collective unit. Family relations have been replaced with money relations resulting in dysfunctional outcomes in families where literacy and income are high but are ridden with other problems such as alcohol and drugs. As with any type of change, globalisation has both advantages and disadvantages. For families, especially those with children to be reared, globalisation can both be advantageous or disadvantageous. It is always the responsibility of parents and those performing parent-roles to assist their children in navigating the varying courses of change and in preparing them for responsible adulthood when the children themselves would have to head their own families. References American Heritage Dictionary. (2000). Culture. Retrieved 15 November 2008, from http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/culture American Heritage Dictionary. (2000). Family. Retrieved 15 November 2008, from http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/family Batini, N., Callen, T. & McKibbin, W. (2006). The Global Impact of Demographic Change. 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Retrieved 15 November 2008, from http://theonlinecitizen.com/2006/12/globalization-and-its-impact-on-singapore-family-values/ Smith, T.W. (1999). The Emerging 21st Century American Family. Retrieved 15 November 2008, from http://cloud9.norc.uchicago.edu/dlib/sc-42.htm Read More