Major Ancient River-Valley Civilizations - Essay Example

?Dario Cristalli Max Kent World History to AD 600 April 16, Ancient Civilizations Before going into the discussion regarding some of the major civilizations, let us get a better understanding of what civilization actually is. The word “civilization” is derived from the Latin word “civitas”, which means a city. A civilization is included in the category of ancient civilizations if it holds a large number of historic places and cities which exhibit the influence of political and cultural characteristics of that time. Some of the major characteristics of ancient civilizations include high agricultural development, a centralized government, a written language, use of technology, legal codes, division of labor, social stratification, science, philosophy, and arts. The ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, which is largely known as modern-day Iraq, Egypt, India, and China were the first to qualify as classical civilizations of the axial age. According to the majority of famous historians, a civilization is basically a process in which people belonging to a specific area shape their cultural and religious beliefs. By the same definition, the ancient Greeks qualified themselves as a unique civilization with one remarkable difference, which was the dominating priesthood that claimed a control on the sole lines of communication with the powers of mystery. In this paper, we will discuss the environmental, economic, and socio-political attributes of Greece, Roman Civilization, India, and China and compare them in order to highlight similarities and differences, which influenced the development in human history. Along with the discussion on similarities and differences, we will also discuss the decline of these famous civilizations in order to get a better understanding of the causes of their decline. The Axial Age The period from 800 B.C. to 200 B.C.E. is generally known as the Axial Age. It was the period when a large number of today’s most famous religions were introduced to the people of that time. Modern day Iraq, Greece, and Persia are some of the most prominent civilizations of the Axial Age. At this time, the politics of the whole world mostly revolved around the area of the Middle East, which was the most stable area of that time. In that age, the civilization of Greece was reaching its peak in all aspects of life whether it was philosophy, politics, culture, or any other aspect of a good civilization. Muesse found that the rise of Zoroastrianism in Persia, emergence of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism on the Indian subcontinent, and the introduction of Daoism and Confucianism in China are some of main religious development s related to the Axial Age.1 Major Ancient River-Valley Civilizations Let us now discuss the environmental, economic, and socio-political attributes of the ancient civilizations of Greece, Roman Empire, India, and China in detail. There are remarkable coincidences which allowed these ancient societies to attain a high degree of development which qualified them to be called as civilizations. It was a coincidence that all of these ancient civilizations were located in highly fertile geographical regions of the world. This was a strategic similarity because without the fertility of the soil, these ancient civilizations would not be able to develop further from their previous precarious existence. The locations of Greece, China, India, and Rome allowed the people to develop quickly from a hunting or gathering way of life to a more peaceful and respectable way of life. Mesopotamia itself lied between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates that encompassed parts of northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran. Gunnell states, “They developed in the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates, along the Nile, the Indus and Ganges, and Yellow Rivers respectively”.2 Both rivers had origins in the Armenian region of modern-day Turkey fed by tributaries from the Zagros mountains. The early people of Mesopotamia used to harness the fertility of soil only if they had a need to build a proper drainage irrigation system along the rivers. Moreover, the system of dikes also allowed them to build dams in order to control the floods. The people also made use of aqueducts to irrigate lands farther from the riverbanks, which were normally dry and waterless in nature. The Egyptian civilization arose mainly in the area known as the black land, which was the flood plain located near the Nile River delta. The ancient Egyptians named the desert portions of their country as the red land in order to differentiate between the two regions. A major problem with the Egyptian civilization was flooding, which not only threatened the civilization of Egypt but also challenged other major ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, India, and China too. Although Mesopotamia, India, and China were civilized to an extent, their primitive technologies were not able to provide any solution to the perennial floods which destroyed crops and even entire cities at times. The Nile River delta in Egypt formed part of the so-called Fertile Crescent in the Middle East; it had included the River Jordan valley where lands nearer rivers are largely fertile. The fertility of the land, ironically, also contributed to the eventual decline of these ancient civilizations (with the sole exception of China). Initially, the soil was able to hold up a population increase, which stabilized the societies and enabled them to develop considerably. However, the population bang was based on exploitation of the land’s resources to the point where it became indefensible and ultimately caused their collapse. Their collapse holds new lesson for the current human race in terms of global climate change these days. The Chinese believed in the three mythical heroes who each individually invented the hallmarks of a great civilization; namely: Fu Hsi (writing, hunting & fishing), Shen Hung who introduced agriculture and mercantilism and lastly, the Yellow Emperor (at around 2700 B.C.) who invented the system of government and Taoist philosophy. To a large extent, China was able to develop economically independently of the complex societies in the Middle East and that of the Indus Valley because of the high mountains and vast deserts in the north and west. Bulliet et al. state, “In Chinese tradition, the concept of yin/yang represented the complementary nature of male and female roles in the natural order”.3 All the four ancient civilizations had come under the great influence of the priests of those times. This strong hold on power reached its pinnacle in Egypt where priests controlled all aspects of everyday life and even the Pharaohs. There is a sharp contrast within China because there was no strong religious caste that exerted considerable political power. It seems to be an exception in this case. In both Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilizations, there existed a clergy that wielded tremendous political power, similar to the papacy in the old Western civilization and also very similar to Islam today where politics and religion are one. The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the earliest of all human literary works, which came from this part of the world. This work tells us the story of two noble half-brothers; both of them were related to the concepts of something between gods and men. This story of great battles and the burden of kingship in an uncertain world of natural disasters and unpredictable divine interference show us that the people of the early Mesopotamian region reflected deeply on the matters of social order, culture, and politics. The heroes on their travels met various challenges with great courage and in solving many problems; they demonstrated a confidence in human endeavour that exemplifies their entrepreneurial home culture. Furthermore, we have examples of social stratification in ancient civilizations even more than today's ones. Our ancient societies have a social hierarchy based on the economic and political powers of an individual. Of the four, India had the most rigid type of social stratification which persisted even today, even if with less importance within society – its caste system. In general, people had the chance for upward mobility through education, hard work and economic wealth, even though often they stay bound to their blood. Having discussed the major ancient civilizations, let us now discuss some of the major classical civilizations in order to know the difference between these civilizations. Classical civilizations belong to the Axial Age and they form the most influencing part of the whole human history. Classical Civilizations The term “axial age” refers to a period in human history from about 800 to about 200 BCE, which many historians have identified as being of pivotal importance. It can be said that it was a turning point between the older age and the newer age, and many important developments took place in this relatively short span of time. Four major civilizations were at their peak in this time: Persia, the Greco-Roman Civilization, India and China. This paper examines the environmental, economic, socio-political cultural attributes of these four major civilizations and compares them in order to highlight similarities and differences, which influenced their development in this critical period in human history. In conclusion, there is a reflection on the key ideas of the sages, which emerged out of these four contexts, concluding that each civilization developed its own intellectual tradition, which continues to exercise an influence even down to the present day. The earliest civilizations had emerged in the major river deltas of the world, taking advantage of the abundant resources there, and building up great cities, which depended on agriculture rather than the older nomadic hunter-gatherer culture. This means that by the time of the axial age there was much more emphasis on stability, and the accumulation of material wealth both through increasingly sophisticated technologies and through widespread trading links with each other. The four major civilizations enjoyed wide territories and a good mix of different tribes and nations, each with their own specializations. The Persians were located in a mid-point between the technologically advanced of the Greco-Roman world and the exotic trading resources of the Chinese. This means that they were well placed to absorb the ideas, which passed back and forth with the traders. The close proximity of many people in one place caused a need for ways of organizing life into an orderly system. It is not surprising therefore that many thousands of miles to the East; the Chinese civilization was grappling with the same ideas. Confucian and Daoist writings dealt with such important themes as “How to be a Good Ruler” and “The Wise Judge.” It was in China that paper currency developed, along with the manufacture and colouring of silk, which was a much sought after trade good across all of the axial age civilizations. The Greco Roman civilization to the West was altogether more focussed on war, and their military expertise ensured that they could exploit a wide network of colonized lands to enrich their main cities. Greek poetry such as Homer’s Iliad is widely recognized as another classic of world literature, and its depiction of epic battles inspires modern films and books even today. Another side to Greek civilization was its commitment to philosophy, science, and politics via the works of Plato, Aristotle and others. The Greek scholars developed the art of logical thinking, and sought to understand the world through observation and deduction, which is one of the underpinnings of modern science. Although inferior to the Greek culture in terms of literature and pure science, the Romans adopted many Greek ideas and expanded them particularly in matters of legal theory and education through writers such as Polybius and Cicero. Greek and Roman writers considered the pursuit of goodness and virtue as the proper goal of life, and they encouraged wealthier children in all the liberal arts so that they could take up their proper role as citizens. Being a citizen of these civilizations was considered as a great privilege but it entailed also some duties, like participating in local government, and this was an important preparation for what we would nowadays recognise as democracy. Many Greek and Roman ideas were subsumed later into Christian cultures, although the idea of monotheism came from the Jewish culture on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean. In India, the caste system emerged as a way to keep order between people and the law books in this civilization focus on a strictly hierarchical division of status. This in turn provided the basis for the Hindu way of life that still prevails in large parts of the Indian sub continent. The writing of the Kamasutra celebrated male and female sexual relations while on the spiritual side Buddhism promotes an ascetic lifestyle and a reverence for all living things. Buddhist sculptures on the top and on the surface of the Gateway at Sanchi depict the gods, animals and human beings as part of a world which consists of different realms, earthly and heavenly, each of which can be reached through these symbolic gateways. Modesty and gentleness are the virtues most prized by Buddhists, and there is a focus on spiritual values, with earthly treasures being regarded as chains that hold people back. Both Buddhist and Chinese civilizations stress the importance of self-control and modesty, expecting people to govern them. The Chinese and Persians developed complex administrative systems to deal with trade and taxes. All four of the civilizations of the Axial age made major contributions to human knowledge, but it is especially in the exchange of ideas between distant corners of the world that the greatest advances were made. When the different perspectives mingled, then the best of them could be distilled out and this is what historians think of when they stress the importance of the axial age. Decline of Classical Civilizations Having discussed the environmental, economic, and socio-political attributes of Persia, Roman Civilization, India, and China and comparing them in order to highlight similarities and differences, which influenced their development in human history; we will now discuss the decline of these famous civilizations in order to get a better understanding of the causes of their decline. An Overview of Classical Civilizations The earliest civilizations had emerged in the major river deltas of the world, taking advantage of the plentiful resources and building historic cities, which did not depend on nomadic hunter-gatherer culture. The people of these cities focused on agriculture. This reflects the emphasis of people on stability and the accumulation of material wealth using sophisticated technologies and through widespread trading links. The Persians were located in a mid-point between the technologically advanced Greco-Roman world and the exotic trading world of the Chinese. The Chinese civilization not only gave start to the paper currency but also started making use of silk products, which were much required to trade goods all across the major axial age civilizations. It means that China was well placed to soak up the ideas, which passed back and forth with the traders of that time. The Roman civilization was altogether focussed towards war. Their military personnel were extremely sure that they could make use of a wide network of populated lands in order to develop their main cities. In India, the caste system was deeply integrated in the culture, which emerged as a way to determine levels of the people. The law books in the Indian civilization focused more on a strictly hierarchical division of the people, which provided the basis for the Hindu way of life that still prevails not only in India but also in some other parts of the subcontinent up to some extent. What Caused Fall of Classical Civilization Some of the major reasons, which caused decline to the classical civilizations, include new forms of governments, expanded borders, mediocre successors, economic and social imbalance, disintegration of large empires, and division between the people based on race. Let us now discuss the factors in detail, which led to the decline of four major classical civilizations of the world. Decline of Rome The most complex of all civilizations’ declines was the decline of the Roman Civilization. Martin states, “The primary reason for the fall of the Roman Empire was the differences between the communal and patriarchal forces”.4 Some other factors behind decline of the Roman civilization were the differences between upper and lower classes of the people and expansion of borders. As Roman Empire started to expand, it required more troops and weapons to cope with the situation. Giving salaries to all troops and buying more weapons was impossible without cooperation of the local people. Therefore, the government of that time imposed various taxes on the lower class of Rome in order to collect money. The government did not impose the taxes on the upper class of Rome. Upper class used to live luxurious lifestyle whereas lower class started to struggle in order to fulfill their necessities of life. Upper class not only enjoyed their lifestyle but also they did not pay any attention to their social and political responsibilities. People, other than upper class, started to view life as a meaningless and hollow thing. Complexities in their lives deviated away their attention from the arts and culture. It is a fact that when a country or a civilization states neglecting the importance of its culture and traditions, it cannot move with the pace of the world for a long time and eventually faces collapse or fall down. It also happened with the Roman civilization where people started to ignore their culture, arts, social and political norms resulting in the decline of whole civilization. These reasons resulted in weakening the social, political, and economic structures of the Roman Empire, which made it easy for the German invaders to invade the Roman Empire. After invasion, local people, which included lower class people, farmers, and laborers surrendered to the Germans and started to seek protection from them instead of the Roman government. Decentralization of powers, which started to occur in the Roman Empire after German invasion, acted as the last step towards collapse of the Roman civilization. Byzantine Empire was the only portion of Rome, which survived the invasion of Germans but that portion was not strong enough culturally to sustain the integrity of the Roman classical civilization. Decline of India Indian classical age is divided into two major halves. One half belongs to Asoka whereas the second half belongs to Gupta. The decline of Indian classical civilization started with the death of Asoka. Asoka had formed a very strong society which was not only strong financially but also integrated all elements of the Indian culture. The economic and financial policies of Asoka rose Indian civilization to its heights. The Mauryan dynasty, which was under the influence of Asoka, became very weak financially and politically with the death of Asoka, which gave way to the invasion by the Bactrian empire, a southwest Asian country. The empire of Bactria destabilized the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent making it easier for the Greek speaking empire to invade India and take control of the political and social matters of the region. Although Mauyran dynasty collapsed after the death of Asoka, a new group came into existence in the region under the command of Gupta. Gupta Empire (320 CE to 500 CE) and the Roman Empire belong almost to the same age. The regional family of Gupta took steps to unite all regions of the subcontinent. The empire of Gupta gave political powers to the local regions of the subcontinent in order to let the people belonging to those regions make their own laws regarding their regions. The main drawback of the Gupta’s decentralized policy was that it made it easier for the Chinese to invade the local regions and take control of their political affairs. The social structure of India was intact as compared to other major civilizations and that is the reason why the culture of India remained intact even after a variety of invasions by different invaders. Hinduism was the only major religion during the classical age of Indian civilization. Different invaders came to the subcontinent but none of them made a strong impact on the religion of the people belonging to the subcontinent. It was only Islamic Mughal dynasty, which influenced a large number of people and spread Islam in a large part of the subcontinent. Decline of China The major reasons behind the decline of Chinese classical civilization were corrupt bureaucracy, illogical division of powers, and the Yellow Turban revolutionary movement. Bureaucracy of any country is one of the main strongholds related to the economy of the country. When the bureaucrats become corrupt and dishonest, it shakes the foundations of the whole nation. Same case happened with the civilization of China where corruption of the bureaucrats resulted in weakening the power of the central government. Although there was central government in China, but the weakened political structure was unable to form a strong government. The decline in the power of the central government resulted in strengthening the local landlords in China (The Decline and fall of classical civilizations).5 The movement of Yellow Turban was the result of political and social imbalance in China. The property owners had a significant influence on the local people of China, particularly, on the peasants. They made the peasants pay heavy taxes, which mad the lives of the peasants very difficult. The internal turmoil caused due to political and social unrest of the Chinese people gave way to the violent tribes, known as Huns, to invade China and take control of the local people. The Hun invasion of China adversely destroyed the foundations of the Chinese civilization ending one of the most famous classical civilizations. Decline of Greek Some of the main reasons behind decline of the classical civilization of Greece were military and economic changes, chronic warfare, spread of Greek civilization, the Peloponnesian war, and the disability of the Greek people to unite. The dilemma with the ancient Greece was that there was no unity among the people of Greece, which gave the way to the invaders to come and destroy the civilization of Greece. The culture of Greece was also not very appreciable in which males used to look for the sexual pleasure outside instead of their own wives. The Peloponnesian war was also a setback to the great classical civilization of Greece. The war with the Persians and then the Peloponnesian war put an adverse affect on the overall Greek civilization. One of the major impacts was on the overall quality of life of the Greek people, which was affected badly due to warfare. Although the war with the Persians united the citizens of Greece, yet the overall political and social structure of Greece was not able to meet the standards of the Peloponnesian war and it led to the decline of the Greek ancient civilization. Works Cited Bulliet, Richard, Crossley, Pamela, Headrick, Daniel, Hirsch, Steven, Johnson, Lyman, and David Northup. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 5th ed. Boston: Wadsworth, 2011. Bulliet, Richard, Crossley, Pamela, Headrick, Daniel, Hirsch, Steven, Johnson, Lyman, and David Northup. The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History. 4th ed. Boston: Wadsworth, 2009. (57-120-131-133-154) Gunnell, Noreen. “Beginnings of Civilization Lesson Plan.” Brighthub.com, 11 Jul. 2010. Web. 16 Apr. 2011. . Martin, Kum. “Fall of Rome - Decline of the Roman Empire.” Ezinearticles.com, 26 Jan. 2010. Web. 15 Apr. 2011. . n.p. “The Decline and fall of classical civilizations.” Historyhaven.com, n.d. Web. 15 Apr. 2011. . Muesse, Mark. “Religions of the Axial Age: An Approach to the World's Religions.” Thegreatcourses.com, n.d. Web. 16 Apr. 2011. . Ponting, Clive. A New Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great Civilizations, Rev. ed. London: Penguin Books, 2007. (55-65) Sherman, Dennis, Grunfeld, Tom, Markowitz, Gerald, Heywood, Linda, and David Rosner. World Civilizations: Sources, Images and Interpretations. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006. (11-19-32-52) Read More