Effect of Natural Environment on Rural Settlements in Mountainous Region - Research Paper Example

? Every natural environment is found to have an impact on the civilization that inhabits it and studies on mountainous regions all over the world have substantiated this claim. The impact of natural environment can be seen on the architecture, life and culture of mountainous regions. The influence on architecture is physical and caused by the geography and climate of a mountainous region and the practical difficulties involved in constructing buildings there. The impact on life of the people relates to the isolated nature of living on mountains, the need to stand together so as to have better security, less access to governmental welfare and resources, and the subsequent poverty caused by geographical remoteness, and also greater insecurities caused by the life on the borders of nations. Nature also influences the activities of these people in that the major vocation is cattle rearing an agro-forestry. The attitudes of the people are also supposed to be affected by the natural surroundings as people have limited expectations from life, which imparts a slower pace to life. Last but not least, the cultural attributes of mountain people is also a reflection of their natural ambience, which imparts color to their visual arts and costumes, adds distinctness to their folk culture and food habits, and also make them a distinct ecologically sensitive civilization. But all these factors also have contributed to mountain people being more vulnerable to the exploitation attempts by outsiders. THE EFFECT OF NATURAL ENVIRONMENT ON RURAL SETTLEMENTS IN MOUNTAINOUS REGION Introduction Nature has a tendency to mold the life of the humans who inhabit it. In history, special traits have been attributed to specific groups of people inhabiting a specific geographical landscape. Natural surroundings of a people have been found to have an impact on their food, clothing, housing, social bonding, economy, culture and attitudes. Thus nature becomes an all-encompassing presence that gives meaning and definition to the lives of humans. It is in this context that the influence of nature on the rural settlements in mountainous regions is investigated here. Architecture It is observed that the typical character in the architecture of mountainous regions is that “the lack of technology is substituted by creativity and through trial and error in using available materials and basic building structures” (Habitat, 2001, pp.3). This is evident when we find that in mountain areas, people use stones more in constructing their houses because that is the most easily available material around (Habitat, 2001, pp.23). Another feature is that very little mortar is used in bonding the stones used to build the walls, which make them provide very good thermal control (Habitat, 2001, pp.23). But a negative aspect of such stonewalls is that they prone to easy destruction by natural forces (Habitat, 2001, pp.23). To cope with the “contour layout” of the land, the houses in mountainous regions are usually arranged in a semicircular design (Habitat, 2001, pp.8). Mud brick or brick are used in construction because mud is the cheapest building material available (Habitat, 2001, pp.8). A house using these materials is also conducive for the cool climate of mountainous areas. By placing the houses along the valleys, the damage from wind is minimized and also more sunlight falls on the houses so that people can cope with the cool climate (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). In the study conducted by Habitat (2001) in Northern Iraq, it was found that houses were constructed facing southwards so that they get maximum sunlight (pp.10). The contour design is also useful in preventing landslides and allowing drainage of excess water during rains (Habitat, 2001, pp.12). This design, which is defined as “housing aggregation” becomes necessary also because such a structure is more convenient to defend, when there is an outside threat (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). The Kurdistan province of North West Iran is another example of a mountainous dwelling place (Bahrami, 2008). Here also the houses are oriented towards south because there they get maximum sunlight in winter and minimum sunlight in summer (Bahrami, 2008, pp.3). The shape of the windows is kept vertical for the same effect (Bahrami, 2008, pp.3). In Northern Iraq, the houses are generally placed “along the ground steps design” (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). The interesting factor of this design is that each house can use the rooftops of the house above, as its courtyard (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). This is unique also in the sense that a community aspect is added to the concept of a house, which is generally considered as strictly private property. This design is called “terrace” design and it is preferred because in a mountainous region, there is only very little land available for human use, hence people have to minimize their use of land for dwelling purpose and thus leave more land for productive activities (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). The same reason is behind why usually there is very little space around the dwellings (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). In Kurdistan also, the same design is seen (Bahrami, 2008, pp.5). For example, the mountain village of Wanderena, in Iraq, is on the “steep lower western slopes of Kazhaw mountain …and has little land that can be cultivated (Kirk and Sawdon, 2002, pp.26). In the mountainous regions of Northern Iraq, concrete slabs were seen laid on the floor of the majority of houses but usually in many other mountainous places, mud floors are common (Habitat, 2001, pp.23). To prevent cold, the windows are usually small openings or they may be even reduced to ventilation holes (Habitat, 2001, pp.24). It is also common to provide cross ventilation through vent holes (Habitat, 2001, pp.24). But in Kurdistan, it is noticed that the design of the houses cause conditions of humidity and cold inside the houses which in turn make people sick (Bahrami, 2008, pp.6-8). In Northern Iraq, roofs are generally made of wood and mud as simple thatched roofs might fall off in the wind and also because wood is a cheap raw material available (Habitat, 2001, pp.25). There will be a layer of thatching in between the wooden beams and the mud coating above (Habitat, 2001, pp.25). Life Living in mountainous regions is found to enhance community living. This is evident when we consider the fact that people in such regions use their houses only minimally, i.e.; only for the purpose of sleeping and sometimes for cooking (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). In many cases it can be seen that cooking and sleeping are also carried out in the open, particularly when there is an amicable climate. For example, in summer people can be seen sleeping on rooftops and cooking in their courtyards on make-shift fireplaces. A major portion of life is lived in common spaces, like in courtyards, under a tree, in the farm and in village meeting places (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). This kind of open living is reflected also in the character of houses which have less number of rooms as compared to the houses in the planes (Habitat, 2001, pp.12). Most often there will be collective laundry washing near the river or the village pond, group prayers in the place of worship, and collective cooking in the “public oven” (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). Notwithstanding these positive elements, poverty has been a common bane of people living in mountainous places. In the Kurdish mountain villages of Iraq, for example, less than 10% of the food intake comes from agriculture and more than half of the food is received from relief activities (Kirk and Sawdon, 2002, pp.27). Around 40% of Kurdish population in the mountain villages has been found to be in poverty (Kirk and Sawdon, 2002, pp.42). When global scenario is examined, it is found that “more than half of the mountain population in developing and transition countries…is vulnerable to food insecurity (Huber and Reasoner, 2005, pp.648). This is because the people get only very fewer opportunities for education and development, which is again caused by the difficulty of governance reaching such difficult terrains. The geographically isolated nature of such dwelling places add up with the cultural isolation that such a people face. As the mountains might be most often the borders of nations, in the past and even in the present to an extent, the people of such places would always be prone to external attacks and threats (Kirk and Sawdon, 2002, pp.2). Also, the rebellious elements inside a nation might have a tendency to settle down in borders, which again will make the people of those regions less secure. Hence these people are always under the threat of misplacement in many parts of the world (Kirk and Sawdon, 2002, pp.2). As the Iraqi government constantly tried to destroy the Kurdish settlements in Northern Iraq, the people in that area became left with very little land for agriculture and hence the poverty situation became worse (Kirk and Sawdon, 2002, pp.8). This is a typical example of the problems faced by people who live in the border, mostly the mountains. Activities The major activities of mountain people have been listed as “pastoralism and agroforestry activities” (Price and Butt, 2000, pp.87). Rearing of livestock is one of the major activities of mountainous communities because they have nearby expanses of forests and pastures for grazing (Kirk and Sawdon, 2002, pp.16). As is found in a recent study, the milk and meat from livestock also balance the nutritional requirements of a mountainous population, which has very little land available for agriculture (Kirk and Sawdon, 2002, pp.16). But the shortage of animal fodder is a constant problem faced by such people and this limits their income generation capabilities (Kirk and Sawdon, 2002, pp.5). Firewood collection and collection of forest produces are other vocations of these people. These activities also impart a nomadic character to these people. Tourism and mining have also been catching up as the non-agricultural activities of mountain people (Price and Butt, 2000, pp.88). The lack of basic infrastructure like roads, electricity and water and fuel supply make these populations very sturdy and capable of hardships. Walking long distances to fetch water and food becomes a routine for them. Another interesting aspect is that women in mountainous regions are found to be under immense workload and emotional pressure because men from mountains have been migrating to cities so that they can find a livelihood (Price, 2004, pp.11). This is proof to the fact that the income generating activities of mountain people are on the verge of a stoppage because “most valued mountain resources, such as forests, minerals and water are expropriated and exploited by outsiders” (Price, 2004, pp.11). Attitudes The sense of community will be deeply rooted in these people because of all these environmental factors. The welfare of the community will be put above the welfare of the individual while taking collective decisions. Sharing things and spaces will be an internalized value for such communities (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). The attitudes of mountain people towards nature are totally different from that of the people in the planes. Mountain people are more closely connected to nature and often view nature as sacred because they solely depend on nature for their survival and livelihood (Huber and Reasoner, 2005, pp.552). Hence, they are supposed to have an eco-centric view which is very important for the future of humanity (Huber and Reasoner, 2005, pp.552) Humanistic landscape. The villages are usually organized as scattered homesteads in and around the valleys (Habitat, 2001, pp.8). It is the resource crunch that generally prompts people to live in a more scattered way than in the planes. All the same the insecurities generated by the difficult terrain lead people to consolidate their dwellings as villages. The house plots and agricultural plots are usually not fenced because in such a terrain, fencing will create difficulty for the movement of people and cattle (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). Agriculture The major income generating activity of the people of mountainous region is farming (Habitat, 2001, pp.8). This is so because these regions lack in technologies to develop productive areas other than farming. The remoteness of these places limits the educational opportunities of people and hence they are usually not aware of any other vocation other than farming. The people in mountainous regions are usually found to be not indulging in intensive agriculture. This might be because of the difficult terrain and also the limited needs that they feel inside the isolated lives that they live, as a community. Even when a person saves some money, there might not be any extra consumer items available for buying apart from the thing, which are needed for the day-to-day life. This might make them a slow paced civilization and also a peace loving people (Kelley, pp.54). Culture McCauley (1995s observed that “mountain people are religious” while writing about the people of Appalachian people (pp.52). The religious practices of these people are usually organized around a community level mosque, temple or church (Habitat, 2001, pp.8). It is the presence of the place of worship as the most important and centralized structure in a village, which imparts a common pattern in design to these villages (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). And this is also one factor that causes a semicircular shape in the design of dwelling places (Habitat, 2001, pp.10). Generally, the religion of mountain people has been described as, “plain-folk camp-meeting religion” with a distinct simplicity and straight forward nature inherent in it (McCauley, 1995, pp.54). Mien, the mountain people of Thailand have been branded by many as “lacking in development, manners and loyalty to the nation” (Jonsson, 2005, pp.4). Similarly it has been accused that mountain people are “closed to outsiders” in an American narrative while talking about the people of Florence (Denzin and Lincoln, pp.64). But the cultural distinctiveness of these people has to be understood in relation with their ground realities discussed above rather than merely based on the mechanical concept of integrating them into the nation. Yet another characteristic of the culture of the mountain people, generally, is the use of colourful costumes and ornamentation as is evident in Tibet and the Himalayan tribes (Bernier, 1997, pp.149). This is supposed to be the influence of the colourful natural beauty that abounds in their surroundings. The food habits of mountain people are also very different from that of the people of the planes. For example, it was the “ramps (that) rescued many a vitamin deficient mountain family from a hard winter’s vegetable fast” (Joslin and Joslin, 1985, pp.5). The more affluent groups who inhabit the mountain regions are found to be having sporting activities like Skiing and mountaineering (Joslin and Joslin, 1985, pp.3, 12). Ecology The destruction of the environment and especially forests, have increased the frequency of landslides and other natural calamities in the mountainous regions. This has made the people there prone to such hazards. Global warming also adds up to natural calamities in such vulnerable geographic region. The reduction in forest cover has also affected their livelihood. It is in this backdrop that it is concluded, “high vulnerability and declining resilience have become typical features of many mountain livelihood systems” (Huber and Reasoner, 2005, pp.648). The forest produces have diminished in quantity and also the availability of pasture-lands for the cattle of the mountain people has decreased. The relief measures by governments on the face of poverty and natural calamities also reach these people very late. As a whole, living in the mountainous region, in the modern times, have made these people one of the most vulnerable group of humans on the face of earth. Conclusion From the above discussion, it becomes clear that nature imparts an inherent rhythm, style and character to the lives of the people. This is because humans are also not separate from nature. The influence of natural environment on the people of mountainous regions is more so because they are more or less isolated from other modern influences. This is what makes them a unique civilization by itself. But the attempts of outsiders to exploit the resources of mountain regions are posing a threat and affecting the naturalness of the lives of mountain people. The increasing vulnerability of this people is a serious matter of concern and needs to be addressed immediately. References Bahrami, R (2008) The role of climate factors in north cargos rural settlements (Kurdistan province), Sanandaj: University Pay am e nor. Bernier, R.M. (1997) Himalayan architecture, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. Denzin, N.K. and Lincoln, Y.S (2003) 9-11 in American culture, Lanham: Rowman Altamira. Habitat (United Nations Centre For Human Settlements), (October 2001) Learning from tradition to improve housing design, Homestead Typological Analysis Report, Nairobi: United Nations Centre For Human Settlements. Huber, U.M. and Reasoner, M.A. (2005) Global change and mountain regions: an overview of current knowledge, Berlin: Springer. Jonsson, H (2005) Mien relations: mountain people and state control in Thailand, Cornell: Cornell University Press.c Joslin, M and Joslin, R (1985) More mountain people places and ways, The Johnson City: Overmountain Press. Kelley, S.G. (2010) Southern Appalachian storytellers: interviews with sixteen keepers of the oral tradition, Jefferson: McFarland. Kirk, A and Sawdon, G (January 2002) The household economy: understanding Kurdish livelihoods in Northern Iraq final report, The Northern Iraq Country Programme and the Food Security and Livelihoods Unit Save the Children (UK). McCauley, D.V. (1995) Appalachian mountain religion: a history, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. Price, M.F. (2004) Conservation and sustainable development in mountain areas, Switzerland: IUCN. Price, M.F. and Butt, N (2000) Forests in sustainable mountain development: a state of knowledge report for 2000, Oxfordshire: CABI. Read More