Mediterranean Mosaic - Essay Example

? How he Different matter used in Mosaic Iconography in Romano-British Villas in the 4th Century A. D determined the beliefs, religion and way of life of its occupants? [Insert Your Full Name Here] [Insert Your Instructor’s Name Here] [Insert Your Course Name and Number Here] 30 March 2011 How the Different subject matters used in Mosaic Iconography in Romano-British Villas in the 4th Century A. D show the beliefs, religion, and way of life of its occupants ? Table of Contents 1 Introduction 5 2 Mosaic Interpretation with Local Cultures 5 4 Limitations of Techniques used in Determination of period of Creation 10 5.1 Iconography of the Sea 11 5.1 Figure 6 12 5.1 Figure 7 13 5.2 Iconography of Mythology 13 5.2 Figure 8 14 5.3 Figure 9 16 6.1 Figure 10 (Lullington Villa) 17 8 Summary of Interpretations 19 Works Cited 22 . 1 Introduction Much can be learned from the study of 4th Century Roman Mosaic iconography as it had traversed the Empire. The intent of the study is to show that Britannia was a vibrant Roman economic centre where mosaics were used in villas to show wealth, social standings and a mixture of religious beliefs whereas common conjecture had been that Britannia was a poor province of Rome . As Britannia flourished, as did the mosaic iconography which took on local elements or used Roman mythology adapted to local culture. Two time periods will be discussed in terms of the development of the complexity of the art: when mosaic iconography came to Britannia in the 2nd Century and the height of the artistic and economic era in the 4th Century. A presentation of the techniques used today in dating mosaic iconography will assist in comparing these two periods . The last part of the paper will show the importance of the different themes of the mosaics and the geometric patterns; and how they were combined into intricate tile combinations. 1 The significant areas in England where they exist today will be shown. To conclude, it will be shown that the life and stands of the Britannia's Elite can be studied through the study of their Mosaic iconography. Based on research of 4th century A. D. art and architecture, figurative iconography was used across the Empire. Architectural structure and floor, wall and ceiling paintings and mosaics were influenced by the artists' use of pattern books without the artist every having seen actual statues or paintings. The presentation of these Graeco-Roman themes are necessary before analysing the influence they had on Britannia's culture. Thesis Question: How the Different subject matters used in Mosaic Iconography in Romano- British Villas in the 4th Century A. D show the beliefs, religion, and way of life of its occupants ? 2 Mosaic Interpretation with Local Cultures The Brading Villa mosaic pavement is considered a typical example of the level of Romano-British mosaics interpretation; it is damaged in situ. It is possible to establish that the level of design and craftsmanship is naive in comparison to the best of the Mediterranean mosaic record from the same period. For instance, based on the details in the British mosaics, it is clear that errors were made in transferring the traditional ideas onto the mosaics. The Rudston Villa, for example, contains an image of the God, Mercury, which had caduceus and leaves on his cap where he should have been holding the caduceus and the leaves should have been as ears.. On a side note, to some viewers, the leaves are confused with wings. However, Mercury’s wings are on the top of his head, between the two leaves. His wings are Mercury’s key identifier, which is why it does not make sense to depict him in this way.2 In giving the artist the benefit of the doubt, it is possible he or she was not well-versed in mythology; therefore, was unable to recognize the significance of the imagery he was copying. Another explanation would be that the patron had asked to be portrayed as the chief element of the work and was chosen as a Mercury figure. However, before hastily judging the flaws in provincial iconography, it is important to recognize the limitations of travel and the influence of geographic location. Much of the northern reaches of Europe did not have the necessary supplies necessary to make mosaics for unskilled workers to handle.3 Traditional scenes of feasting and drinking under the Mediterranean sun probably were exotic to the locals. This factor was to influence the way villas were designed in Britain, and the mosaics in Britain were, if anything, more highly prized than in the Roman regions, because they were less common, represented an alien, believed to be technically superior culture, and were quite expensive to construct.4 The legacy of war and other mitigating factors that have historically affected Roman construction in Europe has also meant that many mosaic pavement records are the only surviving record for contemporary reinterpretations of Roman culture.5. 3 Beginning of Two Periods Figurative Iconography is divided into Graeco-Roman Mythology which encompasses Mediterranean images. There are two principal periods in which mosaics have been divided. When Britain starting laying Mosaics, the mosaicist came from Italy with their pattern books. The first floors were mostly made of geometrical shapes. 3.1 Figure 1 Mythological sea creatures were often painted on white tile. The first group is approximately between 150AD and 200AD. In the second group between the late 3 rd and 4th centuries, the mosaics became more than geometric. They were composed figurative mosaics typically found in villas.6 In all of Britain, over 2 000 mosaics have been discovered. Whereas the majority have geometrical patterns, there are only about 10% that have figures (mythical, animals, gods). The mosaics founds in Villas showed either one figure, created a scene or a told a story. The most notable in this area are the mosaics of Hinton St. Mary and Frampton, which contain hunting scenes, dolphins, and busts of male figures which could be the four apostles.7 There is a contrast of good and evil, of pagan and Christianity and a portrayal of the four seasons. 3.1 Figure 2 In southern England, the most remarkable mosaics were found at the Bignor Roman Villa. One of the typical mosaics which encompasses both the geometrical and mythological sea creature is the dolphin.8 3.1 Figure 3 The provincial mosaic builders were trained at Mosaic schools in England. They worked their designs from pattern books, as the geometrical design had to be calculated and planned tile for tile. Figuratives and animals were taken from images which had never been seen. Subject matter was chosen according to the patron. The Romans brought their trade to the Island existing that it be replicated in the initial period. The paymasters may well have been unaware of the exact literary or architectural heritage they were representing “[l]ike other ancient decorators and their patrons, they selected from a stock of figure-types and schemata, but occasionally took figures out of context, simplified compositions, or even misunderstood the models.”9 At Brantingham the mosaic of Tyche or Muse with water nymphs, depicts the busts of eight females, with a large female bust in the centre of the irregular octagon. It was either the goddess of the villa or a pagan god. The shape of the border is similar to the octagon above the Rudston charioteer that is now damaged (350 A.D.).10 The themes of this mosaic tell a story. The centre tile possibly shows the patron of the villa on his chariot. The four corners have the presents of four goddesses and 4 birds. The Tyche mosaic is mythological, the Rudston mosaic is showing the master of the villa. 4.1 Figure 4 4.1 Figure 5 4 Limitations of Techniques used in Determination of period of Creation One might ask why has there been a comment made about the dating techniques used of the mosaics? Without knowledge of the timeframe, one can not relate the pictorial evidence with the historical events, thus the reasoning of this short discussion. The majority of the mosaics explored throughout this study was created during the 4th century A. D. Each of the three dating methods has its limitations. Evaluating coins as evidence can be an accurate assumption as long as the mosaics had no local influences and the pattern books were used by local masters according to Roman standards. Hair styles and clothing compared to those on the coins can help to determine whether they are from the same period provided the mosaics illustrated the proper figuratives. The mosaic of Hinton St. Mary is connected to 4th century A. D. because of the similar hair style of Christ on the mosaic compared to hair styles found on the example in Figure 5 of Constantine II of the same age.11 However, Smith believes this method cannot be completely accurate as mosaics are not geographically connected or personified with coins, making it difficult to tell whether they are from the same period.12Another method using sealed pottery deposits found in the floor at Brantingham in the first decade of the 4th century A.D. Connecting villa architecture with mosaics as done to date the Keynsham mosaics A third method is by connecting mosaics and villa architecture. This method was used to date mosaics such as Keynsham. These three methods do not give the exact date, there is a reliability of 50-100 years. The use of modern methods such as C14 dates exactly. 5 THEMES OF ICONOGRAPHY 5.1 Iconography of the Sea Many Romano-British artefacts reflect the traffic in ideological tenets from the Mediterranean. As it was a major waterway of commerce and travel, the Romans were highly flattering their travels by illustrating their artwork. Just as an example they used dolphins, (see figure 3) Cantharus and other sea gods, nymphs, and fish.13Some excellent marine mosaic examples include Admiral’s Walk and Littlecote Park. In the mosaic of Admiral’s Walk, Cantharus is depicted in the centre and all other creatures surround it. In the Littlecote Park mosaic, both Cantharus and dolphins are in the corner of the mosaic. Mosaics found along the southern coast of Britain contain mostly marine-based images. It can be presumed that the sea-faring coastal inhabitants of this period conveyed an echo of their preoccupations and real-world objects and animals in classical imagery of sea life. In the bath house of the Roman Villa at Rudston, many 4th century A. D. mosaics have been found such as the mosaic below (see figure 6).14 5.1 Figure 6 Simply because similar designs appeared earlier in history, it does not necessarily mean 4th century A. D. mosaic artists copied the earlier Mediterranean versions. It was common for British craftsmen even not to have seen the Mediterranean creations. For example, it appears there is a connection between the Rudston mosaic (see figure 2), and the decorative narrative of Oceanus, which is typically associated with North African mosaics.15 In other mosaics, it has been documented that monkeys have been made where it was obvious just by the design alone the artisan had never seen the animal. This repeats the importance of the pattern book. According to Wilson, in North Africa, the motif of Oceanus appears differently "where the mask [is] enlarged to sometimes gigantic proportions, set either at the centre or [more often] at the top of the composition11 5.1 Figure 7 Some scholars argue that such stylistic and spatial tendencies might situate the piece squarely in the tradition of mosaics derivative of Tunisian, and more specifically “Carthagian” aesthetic orientation. Yet there are counter-arguments that the Romano-British mosaics are the product of a broad tradition and not a conscious chain of copies leading back to any original “source.”16 5.2 Iconography of Mythology Perhaps the largest thematic group of images in the Romano-British villa mosaics is that, which contains mythological imagery. A large number of mythological and literary characters appear in standard poses. Early scholars proposed theories linking these to Romano-British religious practices; however, later scholars suggested the portrayal is more for aesthetics than religion. From the religious perspective, the subject of the mosaic was taken from the villa owner’s attempt to mix his new found Christianity with his pagan's perspective.17 The example that can be mentioned is the mosaic of Hinton St. Mary that has bust which represents Christ. Henig examines the Lullingstone mosaics (see figure 6) which contain an image of Europa being carried off by a bull. The geometrical design shows the four seasons Above the image there is a mosaic inscription which is not a quotation, as far as researchers can tell, but is reminiscent of Ovid. He observes It does not require much effort of imagination to see the Lullingstone couplet too as a product of the owner’s education and taste. In his schooldays he would certainly have studied Vergil and Ovid in depth, and learned the art of versification.18 5.2 Figure 8 Henig maintains that the picture and the verse are intended to remind the viewer of the famous ancient poem, Aeneid, and that far from reflecting any contemporary religious beliefs, it is intended to allow the owner to display his or her education and aesthetic sensibility.19 He suggests the owner is likely to be a Romanized Briton as a migrant from the centre of the Roman Empire.20 Henig goes on to suggest hidden cryptic messages hidden within the lettering, which he feels signifies Christian meaning. However, this may be taking the ideology too far, as his argument is not convincing.21 It is likely that a secular motivation, displaying wealth and assimilation or continuance of Roman high culture is sufficient to explain the motivation behind the Lullingstone mosaics and indeed also another Aeneid related image in the Low Ham pavement, which depicts the aftermath of the storm that led to the Romans being washed upon the shores of Dido’s realm at Carthage. A The underlying commonality of these images is a well-known literary reference and the potential to stimulate audience admiration; providing plenty of conversational topics over meals and at social events.22 According to Henig, it is not a coincidence that many of the Romano-British mosaics are located in areas within the villas that are designed for interaction (i.e. bath areas, main reception areas, and eating areas).23 Another favourite mythological theme is that of drinking, which is often depicted, with reference to figures of Bacchus or Dionysus, the god of wine and of the wine. The British mosaic pavement in the reception room at the Brading Villa in the Isle of Wight also incorporates a typical Mediterranean scene of marine thiasos, with Medusa’s head as the centrepiece. On each of the four sides of Medusa’s panel, images depict mythological iconography dedicated to various aspects of agriculture and fertility (see figure 4). Though it is not visible to the eye, there is reference that Bacchus is present. This imagery also offers a talking point and vehicle for the celebration of all things fruitful.24 The image of Medusa has been depicted by artists in many mosaics. She protects all those who need be, by turning enemies into stone. For example, in the bath at Bignor Roman Villa, at Dalton Parlours in the apse, at Whitley Grange, and in Fishbourne, the image of Medusa serves as the central focus of a geometric mosaic.25 5.3 Figure 9 The portrayal of mythological figurative was a sign of guarantying the assurance of a good life and a material abundance. The fertility narratives are guaranteed an abundant family and related to room function. From a modern archaeological perspective, scholars and art historians suggest wealthy individuals undoubtedly enjoyed being surrounded by these rather pleasant reminders of the family’s wealth and fortitude.26 The mythological characterisations enhanced this possibility, concretizing their villas as houses of good fortune, in eternity. 6 Iconography of Christianity and Pagan images It has been suggested with some degree of certainty that the Romano-British mosaics are special. They contain a great deal of Christian or, at the very least, dual Christian/Pagan iconography, (see 7) which is the reason they are suggested to be special. There are also some pagan depictions of hybrid or animals of fantasy. Ling detects an element of local colour in the Brading cock-man who “seems to wear a hooded cloak of the type familiar in the north-western provinces.”27 Evidence for this proposition is sought by way of the trefoil shaped Pagan and early Christian sites. A mosaic contains Apollo, beasts, and the four seasons, and the iconography appears humanistic and mythological. It is possible that the narrative of the mosaic potentially reinforced the acceptability of the site that is otherwise Romano-Christian in spatial formation.28 It is also possible, however, that the mosaics have no particular religious significance, and that they were viewed as purely decorative pieces. 6.1 Figure 10 (Lullington Villa) 7 Iconography of Britannia daily life There is one reoccurring theme, which presents itself in British-specific style more often than all of the other themes and styles—hunting. There are, for example, numerous scenes relating to animals, in various outdoor settings. It is apparent why this is a preferred theme. In a land such as Britain, full of wildlife, hunting, followed by extensive feasting, was a favoured pastime of the rich. Pictures of dogs, foxes, deer, pigs, and horses abound; all of which serve as symbols of wealth and leisure. If local patrons are choosing their favourite themes, then it can be inferred that hunting will be ranked high on the list. Not only because of any reverence for hunting gods, but because it reminds them of their favourite sport and pastime. This emphasis is perhaps evidence of an evolution towards a land-based and rural hunting based society in Britain as opposed to the more maritime and city based Mediterranean cultures.29 8 Summary of Interpretations In studying Romano-British mosaics, many similarities have been discussed in this paper. The first similarity is the prevalence of mythological characters and imagery. The second similarity is the theme of seasons,30 as in the Seasons mosaic at Brading, the mosaics of the Lullingstone, and the mosaics of Frampton. The third similarity that can be identified in studying Romano-British mosaics is the use of gods and goddesses such as Bacchus and Venus. For example, at Frampton, a god and goddess are depicted in a mosaic in a room with couches that were arranged around the mosaic.31 Both Dolphins and Cantharus serve as symbols of good luck, and usually are included in mosaics for the purpose of increasing power.32 It is also notable to mention that these images of the mosaics are the idea of the artist who creates them. The audience is invited to interpret the meaning of the artist’s message, without right or wrong.33 The beauty of art, specifically mosaics, is the mystery of the message. One may ask whether the artist wanted it to have something to do with the geographic location, the time period, mythology, seasons, animals, or whether it is a fictional or non-fictional tale being conveyed. Ling addresses this point perfectly in the following quotation from Art and Society in Fourth-Century Britain: Villa Mosaics in Context: Since they presumably represented a considerable capital investment on the part of the villa owners, the choice of designs and subjects can hardly have been entirely arbitrary; the mosaics are thus invaluable documents for understanding the tastes and aspirations of the landed classes of the time. Yet this evidence has been strangely neglected by modern interpreters; the thrust of research has been towards the analysis of regional `styles' and the solving of iconographic problems. There has been no systematic study of mosaics as an index of Romano-British culture.34 In interpreting the mosaics, one must take into account the history and life styles of the culture of the time as the mosaics are living documents. They were commissioned works of art to tell a story; to illustrate a still life or to give a religious significances to the members of the villa. 9. Conclusion The vast number of existing mosaics and the numerous subject matters of the iconography in Romeo-British Villas in 400 A.D. show the viewer the evolution from the beginning of the Roman empire when early mosaics where just geometrical figures with their progression to religious figuratives evolving to vast scenes meant telling a story of Britannia's (elite) life Britannia shows that they were a valuable economic asset to Rome. They had their own moscaic schools to produce its own works. The pattern books were used but they were not always adhered to whether it be implicitly or explicitly The range of iconography used is fairly typical of a Mediterranean culture, but also with local aspirations and habits. Britain is, after all, an island, and although the weather may have been much harsher ; and the food and drink less sophisticated when compared to today’s standards, the provincial population had ambitions to enjoy all that their own natural environment has to offer. They did so in a comfortable, domestic setting—the villa—in which Roman technology has enabled British to construct for their own purposes at home. The figurative mosaics of 4th century A. D. have been discuss by presenting a short expose of the various themes used with visual examples. Dating technique are important as they allow a visual image to the life of historical events. To understand the meaning of the mosaics is to interpret the artist’s voice, message, and state-of-mind at the time of creation as well as the patron commissioning the piece.. This can be done by researching history, comparing look and feel of characters to other items where the time period is known, or breaking down the materials used in creation and researching the time when they appeared in history. The story that mosaics can tell is one of life during the period they were created. Even a lack of preservation can tell a story on its own. Crumbled, damaged mosaics, for example, tell a story of war, climatic shifts, natural disasters and devastation, or hardship that the mosaics have weathered. Works Cited Beeson, A. 1997. A new interpretation of a mosaic panel from Brading, with notes on other Romano-British representations of the subject in mosaic. Mosaic 24, Achilles on Vestis Edwards, Kathryn A. "Daily Life in Medieval Europe (814-1350)." College of Arts and Sciences. University of South Carolina, n.d. Web. 31 Mar 2011. . Frere, S. 1982 "The Bignor villa", Britannia 13, p.141, Rule, M. 1974 "Floor Mosaics in Roman Britain", Macmillan, London, p.22-3. Henig, M. 1997. Art, religion and letters in a fourth century villa: The Lullingstone Villa Mosaic. Mosaic 24 "History of Ancient Rome." Paralumun. Paralumun.com, 24 Nov 2010. Web. 30 Mar 2011. Ling, R. 1983. The Seasons in Romano-British Mosaic Pavements, Society for the Promotion of Roman studies Ling, Roger. 1991. Brantingham and York: A New Look at Some Fourth-Centry Mosaics, Society for the Promotion of Roman studies Ling, Roger. 1997. Mosaics in Roman Britain: Discoveries and Research since 1945, Society for the Promotion of Roman studies Ling, Roger. 2001. "Art and Society in Fourth-Century Britain: Villa Mosaics in Context." Antiquity. FindArticles.com. 31 Mar, 2011. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3284/is_289_75/ai_n28865054/ Ross, David. "Roman Villas in England." Britain Express. Britain Express, 2001. Web. 31 Mar 2011. Rule, M. 1974. "Floor Mosaics in Roman Britain", Macmillan, London, p.29-30. Scott, S. 2000. Art and Society in Fourth-Century Britain: Villa Mosaics in Context, Oxford: Oxford University school of Archaeology Smith, D. J. 1984. Roman mosaics in Britain: a synthesis. In: CMGR III. Ravenna Toynebee, J. M. C. 1981. Apollo, beasts and seasons: some thoughts on the Littlecote mosaic, Society for the Promotion of Roman studies Wilson, R. 2006. Aspects of Iconography in Romano-British Mosaics: The Rudston 'Aquatic' Scene and the Brading Astronomer Revisited, Society for the Promotion of Roman studies Witts, P. 1994. Interpreting the Brading Abraxus Mosaic, Britannia Witts, P. 2005. Mosaics in Roman Britain: Stories in Stone. Stroud, Tempus Read More