Primary Mode of Subsistence - Research Paper Example

? CULTURAL RESEARCH PAPER Submitted By Contents Introduction 3 Basseri 3 Primary Mode of Subsistence 4 Pastoralism 5 Impact of modes of subsistence 6 Social Organization 7 Kinship 8 Beliefs and Values 9 Conclusion 10 Bibliography 11 Introduction This research paper is designed to study the primary mode of subsistence. We will study how a culture makes its living and the impact of modes of subsistence on the cultural behavior. For in depth study and analysis I have selected the culture of Basseri of Iran as my area of focus. In this paper I will discuss in detail different aspects of the modes of subsistence of this culture such as Foragers, Horticulturist, Pastoralist, Emerging Agriculturist, Agrarian states or industrialist. We will also try to develop an understanding of the impact of modes of subsistence on cultural behavior. Since cultural behavior is a vast field which is depicted in all strata’s of life which is beyond the scope of this paper so we will restrict ourselves to just three aspects. Basseri Basseri are the nomadic Muslim tribe of Iran who inhabit the province of Fars and migrate along the mountain near the town of Shiraz. The Basseri is a group defined by political rather than geographical or ethnic criteria. Their population estimated in late 1950’s was 16,000. More recent estimates were not published. In this paper we will focus on the traditional Basseri culture which still exists. (Khanam, 2005) The language spoken by Basseri is a dialect of Farsi. Although majority can only speak Basseri dialect but a few can also speak Turkish or Arabic. Most of the population settled in southern Iran claim ancestral link with Basseri. The other nomadic groups are Yazd-e-Khast, the Bugard-Basseri, and Basseri who inhabit the east of Iran, Semnan. All of them are believed to be connected with the traditional Basseri of Fars. In the mid- nineteenth century Khamseh confederacy was formed and the Basseri were part of it. As with the passage of time Basseri grew in importance within the confederacy it resulted in the diminishing power and importance of the confederacy as a political and social unit. The habitat of the Basseri is hot and acrid climate of the Persian Gulf. They traditionally inhabit a large ecological range of 18,000 to 21,000 square kilometers. In the southern section there is a desert of about 600-900 kilometers whereas north has high mountains. Mountain precipitation supports reasonable vegetation and even foresting. Primary Mode of Subsistence Different modes of subsistence are developed in the same way in all human societies. According to Miller the similarities of wants and the faculties through which these wants are supplied has actually made this progression quite uniform throughout the world. Based on this notion and supported by the fact Scot developed stadial theories of progress and social change. Modes of subsistence are the primary concern of any society. It shapes social institution and human activity. (Smith, 2006)According to Smith based on the reaction to subsistence societies can be divided into four categories. Smith’s four stages are age of Hunters, age of Sheppard, age of Agriculture, age of Commerce. These four stages are viewed as a general schema of social development of all societies. Thus each stage depicts its own set of moral and social behaviors which are in consistency with the physical conditions and security of subsistence. Basic human relations are dependent on modes of subsistence. The concept of subordination, kinship, social, economic and political environment, position of women, parent-child relationship everything changes in the light of modes of subsistence. Each stage has a different dominant mode of subsistence but each stage also absorbs the stage before. He argues that specifically for this reason in this age of commerce hunting, husbandry and agriculture also exists. Hence the relationship between primary modes of subsistence and its impact on social, political, economic environment, kinship etc is established. First we will identify the primary mode of subsistence for the Basseri of Iran and then will try to analyze its impact on society. Pastoralism The primary mode of subsistence for the Basseri of Iran is Pastoralism. A broad definition of Pastoralism can be the people who keep herds and animals. This broad definition includes all three types of Pastoralism i.e. Nomadic Pastoralism, Transhumant Pastoralism and Agropastoralism. (Nelson, 2006) Nomadspastoralist people are those whose major subsistence is only herd keeping and they are not involved in agriculture or practice very little. They move their herd from one place to another on a seasonal basis. The Basseri of Iran is a classic example of Pastoral nomads. Extensive pastures are the important part of Basseri economy along with the migratory fock. It was customary for Basseri to move to Zagros Mountains in search of green pastures during summer and return to lowlands of southern Persia during winter. Pastoral nomads were dependent on farmers for cereals and other necessities because they did not practice agriculture at all. With the rise of urbanism in the fourth millennium opportunities for these nomads increased and they were able to sell their excess meat and accessories to non farming city dewellers. Transhumant Pastoralists were a bit different from Nomad Pastoralist they were involved in both herd keeping and fixed land farming. Their technique was that some part of the community moved with herds and took them to greener pastures during summer just like nomads but a part of the community stays at the field. Historical and ethnographic records show that this type of seasonal practice by transhumant dates back to Middle Ages in Swiss Alps. In the Swiss Alps it was observed that farming villages are usually located at the slope. During summer when the green pastures emerge out of the snow covered mountains a small no. of men move with their herds and flocks. They were responsible for the tending of the cattle, milking and other related tasks such as making cheese and butter. Most of the population stays at village responsible for farming related tasks such as haymaking etc. The third type of Pastoralist is Agro pastoralist. They were involved in both herd keeping or animal husbandry and agriculture at fixed locations. All pastoral societies are marked by mobile strategies. The common thing in all these societies is their dependence on herd animals and their products for livelihood. This animal husbandry shapes the lives of Basseri’s of Iran socially, politically, culturally, economically and ideologically. This kind of life requires interdependence with their lives. This interdependence made them different from other societies. Impact of modes of subsistence As it has already been discussed the impact of modes of subsistence on different aspects of human life is undeniable. It has its influence on social organization, political organization, economic organization, kinship, gender relations, beliefs and values, sickness and healing and social change. Here in this paper I will only concentrate on three aspects to prove my point. Social Organization According to the studies conducted by Salzman pastoralist is basically synthesis of a variety of pastoral life. At ethnographic level he has provided detailed analysis of divergent types of pastoral societies which are namely (Salzman, 2004) Segmentary tribes Tribal chiefdom Peasant Pastoralist He believes in pastoralist as a conceptual category. Although it will reveal diversity in society, subsistence strategy and power arrangements but generally it will depict a picture subsumed by the term pastoralist. One of the primary and basic social units used by Basseri is the tent shared by group of people. Camp groups in terms of tent are used as a mode of keeping the count. Each tent is representative of a nuclear family and an independent household. Male is considered the head of the inhabitants of tent which are a unit of consumption and production. Tent inhabitants have the right over all the immovable and movable property including herd of the tent. They do combine into herding units to increase efficiency. Expediency is the basic principle of their organization rather than kinship. During winter they make groups of two to five tents while during other times of the year the group may have ten to forty tents. These camps form the community of the nomadic Basseri society. To be a part of these camps they have to agree unanimously on decisions like migration, selection of sites and other economic decisions. These agreements are reached either by mutual consent or coercion of power by the leader. A recognized leader ensures the unity of the camp in political and social units. Leaders of different camps vary from chief ton to informal leaders. Chief has the political power and authority over all the members of the Basseri tribe. This social organization is derived from the way of life of the Basseri tribe. It is necessary for their survival to stay in groups because it helps them in their mode of subsistence i.e. Pastoralism. Pastoralism requires them to form and work in groups so that a group can be involved in husbandry and the rest stays back for farming. Chief ton is a symbol of authority to solve any disputes and in taking important decisions. Kinship Now we will try to understand the Basseri of Iran through their kinship and how this kinship took its particular form defined by the mode of subsistence. Each household of Basseri’s of Iran usually owns around 100 sheep and a dozen donkeys. Since pastoralism is their primary source of subsistence pasture rights were obtained through kinship. A kinship group is usually consisted of ninety families. No restrictions were set on the no of animals a family or household could put on it. There were other limitations like size of the herd of his oulad mates or kinship group. The other limitation was the inverse relationship between the size of the herd and its productivity. It was assumed that the larger or bigger the herd the more difficult it becomes to manage and protect. So take care of the large herd someone has to be hired. One difficulty was finding such person and the other was that he may not take care of the herd that honestly. Hence inverse relationship between size of herd and productivity. This problem was taken care of with the inheritance rule. Son will have a share of fathers herd as inheritance while daughter won’t get any share because she cannot labor needed for herd keeping. Natural conditions also were responsible for unpredictable herd size over which they had no control such as weather and fertility. (Eller, 2009) Men of Basseri tribe resorted to a variety of steps to protect themselves from these threats. They started delaying their son’s marriage for fear of giving inheritance. Some started investing in real wealth like land and started becoming landowners from animal holders. These landlords held special power and privilege. They started lending land to farmers for farming and charging them one –third to two-third of their crop. This system of inheritance of herd to sons at their time of marriage left some animal holders impoverished. With herd gone in inheritance to sons they were left with no choice but to work as tenant farmers for the landowners. Beliefs and Values Very few references have been found related to religion, rituals, values and beliefs of the Basseri tribe. The behavior pattern of Basseri has been described more pragmatically in terms of economics and politics and very rarely in terms of rituals, ceremonies and the belief system. The Basseri actually shows a poverty of ritual activities. Whatever were their beliefs, ritual activities, ceremonies and customs they are hardly reflected or expressed in their actions? Different elements of ritual are not interrelated with the basic social structure of the society. (Eller, Introducing anthropology of religion: Culture to the ultimate, 2007) The pastoral people of Southern Iran or Basseri do possess a religion but it is hardly an important factor in their lives. They are mainly Shi’ ite Muslims, who are religious to the extent, that they are familiar with the general premises of Islam. Their approach toward religion is very lax and indifferent. They invite holy man to perform marriages and other ceremonial activities. By and large their ceremonial life is quite simple and pragmatic. Ceremonies are observed during events of birth, marriage etc but they are more relevant in terms of social and political aspect than religion. This is very much in conformity with their mode of subsistence which is also very practical. Conclusion Basseri nomads are the typical categorization of the pastoral nomadic way of life. Migration is termed as the central rite of nomadic society. Their migratory cycle is the primary element of their conceptualization of time and space. Their migratory habit is strongly related with the economic cost and emotional engagements. (Azimi, 2009) After doing the critical analysis of the culture of Basseri of Iran we found out their primary mode of subsistence, i.e. pastoralism has its strong impact on their social, economic, political organization, kinship, values and beliefs. Bibliography Azimi, F. (2009). The quest for democracy in Iran. UK: Harvard university press. Eller, J. D. (2009). Cultural Anthropology: Global Forces, Local lives. London: Routledge publishers. Eller, J. D. (2007). Introducing anthropology of religion: Culture to the ultimate. London: Routledge publications. Johnson, R. (2011). Basseri. Retrieved Feb. 25, 2011, from Advameg: www.everyculture.com Khanam, R. (2005). Encyclopaedia Ethnography of Middle- East and Central Asia. New Delhi: Global Vision Publishing House. Nelson, S. M. (2006). Handbook of gender in archeaology. Oxford: AltaMira Press. Salzman, P. C. (2004). Pastoralists: equality, hierarchy and the state. West View Press. Smith, C. (2006). Adam Smith's political Philosphy: The invisible hand and spontaneous order. London: Routledge. Read More