Economic Impacts of Oil Spills in Terms of Economic, Marine Life and on the Waters - Research Paper Example

CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The chapter is intentioned to review the research approach and methods, which are considered most suitable towards determining the short-term and long term economic impacts of oil spills in terms of economic, marine life and on the waters for the research. The chapter aims to develop the fundamental concepts and underlying knowledge on the compilation of the pertinent data, relevant towards achievement and realization of the research objectives. Moreover, the chapter offers a detailed understanding of the research methodology, including determination of research methods and type of research pursued, conceptual framework, unit of analysis, methods of data collection, the sampling strategies and methods and the methods of data analysis. The research objectives were essential towards selecting the most appropriate research methodology (Leedy & Ormrod 2005), hence the research methodology had to suit to evaluating the impacts of oil spill by Italian Tanker Laura D’Amato on Sydney Port Waters, Fisheries and Tourism. 3.1 Research Overview The research envisioned to study the effects of Oil spills, which have been suggested to be diverse, International Whaling Commission, (2003). No single method can therefore be independently sufficient in providing data that can ultimately meet the research objectives (David 2009). The research was carried out through stages which are integrated together, Research Process; Research Philosophy; Methodologies and Data Collection. The first stage in the research was the research process, which entailed and was driven by deductive reasoning that all oil spills in one way or another have impacts, there was an oil spill by the Italian Tanker Laura D’Amato, and therefore the oil spill had some impacts, this formed the logical reasoning behind the research. The research utilised both quantitative and qualitative research methods, this pragmatic approach was necessitated, by the fact that the quantitative and the qualitative methods can complement each other (George 2005). Moreover, the research was founded on examining various constructs such as the impacts on water, and fisheries, which is quantitative, as well as the impacts on tourism, which is both quantitative and qualitative. The research was geographically limited to the areas which were affected by the oil spill in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Units of measurement Different units of measurement was utilised in the study. To understand the impacts of the spill in the port water, geographical unit of measurement was used (Harvey 2011), while individuals, groups and artefacts where utilised in the study of impacts of the spill on fisheries and tourism. Essentially the study entailed a case of Oil spill caused by the oil spill by Italian tanker Laura D’Amato, hence the study focused on evaluating the impacts of the spill on Sydney port waters, fisheries and tourism. In the study, multi-method data collection method was implemented, whereby the study involved data collection from the primarily and the secondary sources. Primary sources are defined in the study as the data about the subject matter collected through field research, where the collected data is original and does is not in existence already (Asaad 2008). Most of the secondary sources of data are external, sourced from different organizations and regulatory bodies, while internal data is the data from bodies or organizations which were directly involved in the clearance of the oil spill. The study also considered diverse records such as journal publications on the effects of oil spills, newspapers, magazines, past publications by the concerned parties, regulatory and legal publications concerning marine pollutions, books, reports of commissions of inquiries and websites of the main stakeholders (Stead 2001). Moreover, in the research other sources of existing data were utilised, which is not confirmed to any particular organization, and data available from outside of the institutions directly under study (Matthew & Carole 2004), that is vital towards determining the short-term and long term economic impacts of oil spills in terms of economic, marine life and on the waters for the research. Other significant external sources of secondary data were commercial market research organizations, trade publications and government publications (William & Frank 2004). 3.2 Purpose of collecting data Systematic investigation of phenomena was utilised in the research where the basic tenets of the study engaged seeking to explore, describe, explain, and possibly envisage the degree of damage of the oil spill by the Laura D’Amato on the Sydney port waters. The data was also collected to enable the researcher to evaluate the effects of the oil spill to marine life within the port, in the surrounding areas and in the vicinity covered by the Oil spill, and as well asses the impacts of the oil spill of the Laura D’Amato on the tourism industry in Sydney city in particular, and Australia in general. Essentially, the data collection is purposed towards answering the research questions whose answers could not be instantly apparent. In the research, descriptive research, which involves gathering information, summarising and mapping was implemented, to understand the significance of the impacts of the oil spill on the tourism industry in Sydney. Explanatory research, which entailed testing, and understanding causal relations was imperative towards understanding the effects of the oil spill on fisheries within the port, in the surrounding areas and in the vicinity covered by the Oil Spill, this was integrated with exploratory researches which entails discovering, uncovering and exploring as presented by (Earl 2010) and (Marinov & Brebbia 2010). The useful information is to understand the degree of damage on the Sydney port waters did the oil spill by the Laura D’Amato cause. 3.3 Basic Questions answered by the research The questions answered by the research were geared towards the achievement of the research objectives. The research therefore envisioned to answer different questions based on the effects and the degree of damage of the Oil spill Italian tanker Laura D’Amato on Sydney port waters, fisheries and tourism.  Furthermore, the research answered on the effects of the oil spill on fisheries within the port, in the surrounding areas and in the vicinity covered by the Oil Spill. 3.4 Determination of Research Methods Literature review is related to the data collection requirements. In the study, exhaustive review of literature was utilised, this technique involves locating and considering the available or the accessible research content on the consequences of oil spills on the port waters, tourism and fisheries, and particularly considering the case of oil spill by Italian Tanker Laura D’Amato, regardless of whether the information is published or unpublished. This was complemented with purposive sampling, where the primarily essential or critical publications concerning the effects of oil spill by the Italian Tanker Laura D’Amato were considered as presented by Kothari, (2008). From the collected literature, the research was able to derive the most appropriate oil spill measurement metrics; the direct impact density gradient model measures the direct impacts, while the input-output model is used to measure the short term indirect economic impacts of an oil spill (Ranjit 2005). The multi- approach method which entails combining Input-Output Model framework and relative density gradients was used. 3.5 Conceptual Framework Figure 3: Venn diagram of literature framework factors The impacts of the Oil Spill by Italian tanker Laura D’Amato were diverse, and in order to determine the effects of oil spills, an all-inclusive approach in vital, which considers the direct and indirect as well as the short term and long term effects on several factors. The vital factors considered from direct and indirect perspective include the effects on the Sydney Port waters, the tourism (economic) as well on the fisheries, which is an environmental concern. These factors are integrated together. 3.5 Methods of data collection Data was collected from diverse sources; an important source of the data collected was the secondary sources of data. Furthermore, the literature for the study was further narrowed down to literature on the effects of the spill on the port waters, such as the level of pollution, the effects of the spill on fisheries as well as on the tourism industry (Newman 2004). The official government statistics were considered, from the Sydney city, the regional level, as well as from Australia’s government, which influenced to a great degree the findings. The official statistics were considered vital since it passes the practicality, reliability, and are accessible and utilize proper sampling frames, the law such as NSW Marine Pollution Act 1987, was also a source of information. Another important source of information was the media were the researcher sourced for information from the researcher studied the websites of the Australian Maritime Safety Authority, Marine Incident Investigation Unit, and the Sydney Port Harbour Control. Reports by the Incident Analysis team established after the spill, NSW Fire Brigade and Shell were also studied. 3.6 Sample Discussion Sampling theory is a means of securing a sample that is representative of the population as presented by Benedetto and Paulo, (2001). 3.7 Methodology Study Description: Sample Population The study was carried out in a sequential manner, which involved satisfying the essential stages before proceeding to the next stage (Jennifer 2002). Using purposive sampling, the study focussed on the effects of the spill on the tourism industry, on the fisheries and on the port waters. The population was made up of all the oil spills in Sydney, however the study focussed on the oil spill by D’Amato. 3.8 Methods of data analysis The study was executed in phases, which incorporated definition and determination of research questions, selection of the cases and determination of data collection and analysis tools, data collection preparation, actual data collection , assessment and analysis of the data, and report preparation (Kothari 2008). Preparation for data collection involved systematically organizing data to avoid having overwhelming information. Further, data evaluation and analysis, was done which entailed examining raw data using varied interpretations such as Structure equation modelling, adopting the grounded theory approach (Keith 2005). CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS The chapter presents the findings of the research, which was usually based on collection of data from secondary data collection method. Effects of Oil spill on fisheries. The impacts of the oil spill were measured utilising the direct impact density gradient model measures the direct impacts of the oil spill on the fisheries. The spill of more than 290,000 litres in one way or another affected the environment. However, the direct effects on the fisheries were less severe. The marine life includes birds such as Fairy Penguin colony, cormorants and seagull, which in most cases bear visible consequences of the spill. From the literature, fisheries are part of the marine ecosystem, which is dynamic and influenced by various constructs. From the research findings, the spill had few direct effects on the fisheries. From the research carried out by (Julian 2000) the spill did not directly result to massive reduction of fisheries species distribution in the affected area. In addition, the abundance and composition of the fishes were not affected, to a noticeable degree. However, the productivity in terms of fishing was impacted, especially sport fishing since, fishing could not continue during and after the spill. There is no literature to show that the breeding success and the entire functioning of the fisheries system, was affected. The extent of the damage on fisheries in terms of oil induced mortalities on fish and shellfish eggs and larvae were at the minimum, sue to the quick response by the spill management team. Moreover, it is difficult to gauge the extent of oil spill induced mortalities, in comparison to natural losses. The impacts on the fisheries can be deduced from the extent the oil spill affected the birds. There was minimal collection, cleaning and rehabilitation of oiled birds, marine mammals and other animals. NSPWS, (1999) reported that the wildlife injury was low with 16 birds being cleaned and two cormorants dying. Sea Hares were relocated, while two penguins required cleaning. According to (MacFarlane & Burchett 2003) considering the extent of the oil spill, a small number of marine life, including seabirds suffered hypothermia, where oil mixed with water to form "mousse," which sticks to feathers and fur, making the birds’ feathers lose insulation capability, hence dying from hypothermia. Fisheries can also be directly affected by the poisoning and Internal Damage due to ingesting oil. The indirect effects of the oil spill on the fisheries include the effects on the food chain; the oil spill had no significant effects on the invertebrates in the surrounding areas. The findings suggests that there is difference in Pre-spill, species richness at Gore Cove Terminal which was higher than Greenwich Point and Gore Cove-Berry Island, while after the spill, there was no significant differences in species richness or abundance found. Moreover, in the Berry Island site, there was no significant difference in terms of richness following the oil spill. The changes in abundances of species therefore altered the structure/balance of the communities as presented by (MacFarlane & Burchett 2003). Since the food cycle in marine environment is dependent on several factors, the invertebrate communities respond with an initial high mortality and lowered community assemblage diversity (John 1970), after which there is large population fluctuations of opportunistic invertebrates. After some time, the population numbers return to pre-spill conditions. This indirectly affects the fisheries. The Laura D’Amato oil spill also caused decreased reproduction, to a small degree due to destruction of herring and salmon eggs. Effects of Oil spill on Tourism The oil spill caused by Laura D’ Amato had both direct and indirect impacts on the tourism sector of Sydney town. The spill directly and indirectly affected the tourism sector in Sydney. From the studied literature, the spill potentially tended the image of Sydney as the most favourable tourism destination in New South Wales. The spill was immediately reported in the mass media, yet tourism in Sydney is integrated with the harbours and ports. According to Brand Sydney which is dedicated to revitalising and strengthening the image and appeal of Sydney as a tourist destination and Visit Sydney which is intentioned to  increase promotion of Sydney as a tourist destination, the public attention generated by the spill did not damage the tourism image of Sydney, in contrast the quick response by all the concerned stakeholders served to highlight the fast responsiveness of the authorities in the City, hence fostering the confidence of the populace and the tourists on disaster responsiveness. Accordingly, the spill had an indirect impact on tourism, through portraying of a positive image in terms of disaster preparedness. The sheen and Mousse resulting from the Laura D’Amato oil spill reached Port Jackson, which is the natural harbour of Sydney. Tourists flock Port Jackson due to its spectacular natural beauty, as well as the location of Sydney Harbour Bridge and Sydney Opera House (Margo, Alison & Adrian 2004). The resultant vapour smell of the oil spill discouraged tourists from visiting the Sydney Opera House; hence the House recorded lower number of visitors during the time of the spill. Moreover, the Sydney Harbour Bridge is a favourite destination for tourists, where the South-east pylon serves as a as lookout and tourist attraction, with several telescopes and antiquated arcade games. During the spill temporarily reduced the number of tourists visiting the pylon. The affected area was the Berry Island, which is a recreational area, the area took time to be cleaned till the September, 27th 1999 hence the recreational activities were affected, which could consequently affect tourism. The Oil Spill by Laura D’Amato affected the operations of Bridge Climbing which has been opened one year earlier. Tourists like Bridge climbing the southern half of the bridge throughout the day, from dawn to dusk, however due to the smell caused by the spill, a small number of tourists engaged in Bridge climbing (Hannah 2003). Moreover, a number of Harbour beaches which are tourists’ destinations, such as Balmoral Beach, Edwards Beach, Clontarf, North Head Quarantine Station Beach, Obelisk Beach, Washaway Beach, Clifton Gardens, Little Manly Beach, Nielsen Park, Chinamans Beach, Camp Cove and Lady Bay Beach could potentially be affected. The Oil spill however, did not significantly affect the beaches. The Oil spill could indirectly affect tourism through Taronga Zoo which is the city zoo of Sydney (Hannah 2003). The Zoo participated in the capturing and cleaning of birds affected by the spill. The deaths by the oil spill however were insignificant, and did not affect the operations of the Taronga Zoo. In addition, the surrounding area of Port Jackson harbour foreshore has some bush land with diverse range of native animals and trees, the animals and trees were not affected by the oil spill. From the Websites of tourist hotels, Hotel occupancy was not affected during the period, moreover the number of visitors did not drop suggesting that the oil spill had no significant impact on the number of tourists in Sydney. Effects on Port Waters The oil Spill began on Tuesday, 3rd August 1999, from approximately 1830 hours, till the valves were closed at 1850 hours. Sydney Port is busy; however the oil spill did not directly result to noticeable interference of port activities. Whereas operations of small boats were affected, this alteration was insignificant, when compared with the operations of the entire Port Jackson. The resultant spillage covered several areas, such that Black Oil reached HMAS Waterhen and Manns Pt, the Black oil is more pollutant, however According to (MacFarlane & Burchett 2003), the oil lasted for a short duration, therefore it did not significantly pollute the port water. Moreover, the black oil was limited to few areas. The Mousse reached areas near Hunters Hill, Greenwich, Balls Head Bay, Goat Island, Millers Pt, Blues Point, Lavendar Bay, Kirribili, Shell Cove and Robertsons Pt. from the spillage, two cormorants died due to the effects of the mousse; however this was an insignificant number, when compared with the number of cormorants in Sydney (Bryan 2005). The Sheen spread to significantly cover a large proportion such as Cockatoo Island, Balmain, Millers Pt, Neutral Bay, and Farm cove, Taronga Zoo, Rushcutters Bay and Mosman Bay. The sheen polluted the port waters since it covered a large area. However, the response was quick and the cleaning was effective such that the “sign-off”, was achieved by 20th August, 1999 (MacFarlane & Burchett 2003). Accordingly, the presence of sheen could have potentially affected on the planktonic organisms which live in surface waters, however comprehensive analysis of the literature, suggested that the planktonic organisms were affected to a very negligible degree. In examining the impacts of the oil spill, the research relied on secondary sources of data, which opined that the oil spill by Laura D’Amato had insignificant effects on the Sydney port waters, tourism and on fisheries. References Asaad A. 2008, Statistics Made Simple for Researchers, Rex Bookstore, Inc, Cebu. Benedetto J. and Paulo F. 2001, Modern Sampling Theory: Mathematics and Applications, Birkhäuser, Switzerland. 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