The Development of Effective Environmental Policies - Case Study Example

Obstacles that stand in the way of developing effective policies and how to overcome them Name Date Introduction Concern for the interests of the future generations will be reason enough for most people to look beyond economic development as an indicator of welfare. However, there are also additional reasons (OECD 2001, 5). The long-term sustainability of economic development relies on a healthy environment, cohesive societies and the maintenance of basic ecosystem services. Balancing these factors will need stronger co-operation with transition, essentially in developing countries, which already constitute over 80-percent of the world’s population. This paper discusses the obstacles that stand in the way of developing effective policies to address global warming in democratic political systems of government. It further elaborates the manner in which governments can overcome the obstacles. Generally, governments need to lay larger emphasis on international co-operation in order to attain viable solutions. The formulation of effective environmental policies that address global warming in democratic political systems of government faces some significant obstacles. These include the manner in which total and per capita carbon dioxide emissions are empirically tested. They are known to affect global warming policy adoption in two ways. Countries that possess the greatest carbon dioxide emissions per capita such as Australia have a tendency of being the highest income nations who have historically produced the most atmospheric carbon (Porter and van der Linde 1995, 128). Subject to the Kyoto Protocol of 1997, Australia is required to cut down their emissions more than nations that have a lower per capita carbon dioxide emission. On the other hand, nations that possess a higher per capita carbon dioxide emission, it is probable that the public will oppose introducing carbon emission reduction targets that are aggressive more fiercely. For instance, in 2003 in Australia, the New South Wales government created the NSW Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme to minimize emissions by demanding that large consumers of electric and electricity generating companies to buy NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates (NGACs). The policy was however condemned by Centre for Energy and Environmental Markets (CEEM) and the public for lack of transparency and effectiveness and formed the campaign agenda for winning the 2007 federal election (Bailey et al 2011, 3-6). On the other hand, nations whose total emissions are lower may be unwilling to reduce emissions since their contribution to global warming is small. Hence, any slight reduction in emissions will merely have an insignificant effect on global emissions. The level of democracy is another obstacle that can hinder the development of effective environmental policies. Democratic political systems of government are made to transmit popular priorities and concerns into the process of making policies (Steve 2006, 5). In democratic countries such as Australia where public knowledge of global warming is high, an individual would expect an ambitious climate policy, which would however face opposition from dissenting parties. Indeed, a similar situated occurred in Australia. After criticism of News South Wales's Greenhouse Abatement Certificates (NGACs), most Australians looked forward to have a more ambitions policy, in this case, the emissions trading scheme (ETS) in the 2007 elections. The new government under Kevin Rudd that came after the Howard Coalition implemented the ETS after they assumed power. Afterward, it introduced Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, which was consistent with its promises and ambitions ((Bailey et al 2011, 2-7). However, Tonny Abbott, who wanted a more ambitios policu that would reduce emissions using a ‘simple tax’, also questioned ETS. This made it difficult for the government to fully implement ETS. On the contrary, if the public opposes climate policy since it may cause harm to short-term economic prospects, the adoption of an ambitious policy within this region may be inhibited by democratic political systems (Femia et al. 2001, 162). Therefore, the straight effect of democratic political systems on global warming mitigation policy can be either negative or positive. The intensity of the carbon emitted is another essential determinant of global warming measures and policies. If the carbon emitted in industries such as mining, utilities and manufacturing, is not measured well, it can be a great obstacle into the formulation of effective policies (Thomas 2001, 42). State administrative capacity can as well be an obstacle into the development of effective policies. Once political leaders have announced a course of policy action, the stated intention may not be transformed into state policy. This is mainly dependant upon the bureaucracy’s administrative capacity to draft laws and regulations, and present them for executive and legislative approval. This element is merely addressed implicitly within the political economy literature, though it might be essential. In Australia for instance, there is freedom of media. Weak carbon emissions and strong democracies might however have weak environmental policies because of inadequate capacities to implement and design such policies in addition to enforcing them (OECD 2001, 15). An additional obstacle that can stand in the way of developing effective policies includes the public knowledge of the danger presented by global warming (OECD 2001, 9). Given the degree to which the government reacts to public pressure, an individual would expect stronger policies to occur as a result of public knowledge concerning global warming. The information used to measure these is obtained from a Gallup poll conducted within 175 countries that inquired from people whether they view global warming as a threat. Additionally, people were asked how much they are acquainted with global warming and if it is brought about by human activity or a natural occurrence. However, since the public’s understanding of global warming, as unveiled above affects the development of national climate policies, instrumental variable techniques are essential when addressing global warming in democratic political systems of government (Darren 1997, 536). International commitments also serve as an obstacle when developing effective policies. In each country the type of globally negotiated carbon emission reduction targets will play a part in domestic polities’ and leaders’ cost or benefit considerations on global warming policy innovation (Bill 1997, 16). Therefore, for confirmation of the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and the emission-reduction target size, the government for effective development of policies gets to control international commitments. Absence of long term planning horizons is an additional element that can hinder the formulation of effective policies. Lack of inadequate framework for evaluating the impact of environmental policies on various kinds of resources leads to measures being selected that target short-term objectives (OECD 2001, 7). This is done even though the measures may possess negative long-term impacts. Although trade-offs between various goals may in the short term prevail, in the long term natural, social, human and man-made capital will complement one another in backing up welfare improvements. Policies must also aim at lowering the economic cost. This will need the government to ensure that the prices of every additional resource spent are equal throughout the range of potential interventions (OECD 2001, 8). Lack of equality in terms of costs can block the development of effective policies that address global warming. However, with cost-effectiveness, the minimization of total costs is enabled. Similarly, cost-effectiveness helps to set targets that are more challenging in future. Most of the benefits provided by government interventions required to support sustainable development possesses the characteristics of public goods, which include education, health, basic research and information (OECD 2001, 8). Additionally, most of these goods are worldwide, since they will benefit many countries. Effective distribution of these public goods needs obstacles to be dealt with successfully via burden sharing rules that discern the various response capacities and responsibilities of individual countries. However, ineffective delivery of the public goods can act as an obstacle in formulating effective policies. Unsustainable practices can result from tongue-tied policies in various domains. In particular, sectoral policies are frequently introduced without considering the externalities being targeted by policies (OECD 2001, 8). This leads to spillover effects and inconsistencies. Improving policy coherence needs better integration of environmental, social and economic goals in various policies (Femia et al. 2001, 170). Lack of policy integration can hinder effective policies being developed. Similarly, threats of surpassing critical thresholds within the regenerative capability of the surroundings are subject to uncertainty. Consequently, when making sustainable development policies, countries should take proper precaution in circumstances where there is no scientific certainty (OECD 2001, 8). Lack of proper precaution can block the development of effective global warming policies thus acting as an obstacle. A participatory approach is also essential as it helps to meet the challenge of sustainable development successfully. Without accountability and transparency, developing effective policies is considered difficult since it requires that the procedure through which decisions are made is communicated by the complete range of potential consequences (OECD 2001, 8). It is also accountable to the public. How to overcome the obstacles A complete strategy is required to overcome these obstacles. Governments need to display leadership. Particularly, they are required to make their tool-kit for developing policies more integrative, more market oriented and more inclusive of growing interests of the country. Progress also needs an agenda that is focused, with special precedence given to regions where the dangers of non-sustainable forms of development are highest (OECD 2001, 18). To be specific, making markets function for sustainable development is among the ways to overcome the obstacles. It is important to widen the utilization of market-based tools as well as improve support programs so that price signals become more consistent with the objective of separating economic growth from environmental pressures (Thomas 2001, 45). Many environmental objectives can be attained in a more cost effective manner using market-based tools. This includes eliminating market failures and externalities through greater utilization of tradable permit systems and environment-related taxes as well as addressing failures in policy making by reforming subsidies that are environmentally damaged. Similarly, in practice, market-based tools will have to be combined with additional interventions such as information, voluntary agreements and regulations (OECD 2001, 19). Governments also need to strengthen their decision-making in order to overcome policy obstacles (Thomas 2001, 45). They have to lead by example in order to promote sustainable development. This can be done by focusing on implementation processes and internal policy design and more effectively incorporating the dimensions of sustainable development, which include social, environmental and economic. Similarly, they need to focus on making their own capacity better to support sustainable development in addition to developing productive and transparent mechanisms for interacting with the civil society (OECD 2001, 20). Exploiting the power of science and technology is an additional way in which governments can overcome obstacles. Technological development and scientific progress are major forces that bring about improvements in living standards and productivity (OECD 2001, 21). Novel technologies provide considerable promise for separating economic growth from long-term environmental degradation. However, there is no assurance that innovations will come out where and when they are mostly needed, or at a cost that reflects all social and environmental externalities connected with their deployment. Governments should create an environmental policy that offers the correct signals to users and innovators of technological processes, both internationally and domestically, as well as to fund basic research. They also need to back up private initiatives in a suitable manner (OECD 2001, 21). Governments should also manage linkages with the worldwide economy if they want to overcome obstacles that address global warming. Capital flows and international trade contribute to long-term economic development and growth. Similarly, they offer a foundation for attaining social and environmental goals (Porter and van der Linde 1995, 129). When investment and trade policies as well as social and environmental policies are mutually supportive, each of their contribution to sustainable development is increased. OECD countries such as Australia must reinforce this consistence, both in international negotiations and within their domestic arrangements. To develop in a manner that is socially and environmentally sustainable, growing countries require improved access to OECD markets as well as active support from different nations for their building efforts (OECD, 2001, pg 22). Having strong international co-operation and leadership to act fast in order to attain the mitigations levels put up under the Kyoto Protocol is another way of overcoming the obstacles. Governments need to adjust their domestic policies so as to be in line with the climate change objectives. They further need to bring in market-based measures like carbon taxes, subsidy reforms and emission trading systems, and to put together these policies with programs that are focused for technology diffusion and development. Governments also need to formulate long-term mitigation policies as well as strengthen their partnerships with growing countries, in order to make concentrations stable at levels that prevent harmful interference with the weather system (OECD, 2001, pg 23). Management of natural resources is another method that can be used by governments to overcome policy-making obstacles. Since natural resources offer the raw materials required for economic activity and the foundations for life, they are considered essential. However, most of the ecosystem services offered by natural resources cannot be reflected easily within market prices. Sustainable managing of natural resources needs getting their prices correct; by taking into account both their non-use and use values. Therefore, governments must examine present policies with the perspective of making markets serve conservation aims better as well as strengthen their monitoring, enforcement capabilities and research. They need to also raise their efforts to assist developing countries improve their capability to handle their own natural resources within a sustainable manner (OECD 2001, 25). Voluntary approaches to developing policies in countries can also be used to overcome obstacles. They have been publicized as an effective way to attain environmental improvements (Thomas 2001, 45). Nevertheless, voluntary approaches should still show that they can substitute mandatory regulations. Additionally, they should demonstrate that they do not merely form the only option when strategies that are more efficient are hindered by the decision makers’ lack of willingness to act. Regulation can also be used by governments to get rid of the environmental obstacles. It has remained to be their tool of choice mainly because when correctly enforced it provides a high level of assurance that the goal will be attained (Bill, 1997, pg 14). Regulation, if properly conceived, should not drive up costs. Instead, it promotes innovation competitiveness and resource productivity (Porter 1995, pg 124). Policy makers should have at their disposal a broad variety of regulatory alternatives, and they need to ensure that the various alternatives will be suitable to different environmental problems (Darren 1997, 552). Therefore, it would be greatly beneficial if governments were able to tailor regulatory responses successfully to the specific environmental circumstances. One way of helping achieve such a result is to know that there are different policy variables that surpass an essentially divided approach to regulatory invention. Additionally, that neither command and control regulation or self-regulation possesses a mortgage on the applied regulatory variables (Darren, 1997, pg 533). Conclusion To conclude, obstacles that stand in the way of developing effective policies that addresses global warming in democratic political systems of government should be overcome for efficiency within the government. Such obstacles include public knowledge of the danger presented by global warming, the level of democracy, intensity of carbon-intensive industry and the manner in which total and per capita carbon dioxide emissions are empirically tested. Other obstacles include International commitments, absence of long term planning horizons, pricing and cost effectiveness. For these obstacles to be overcome, governments need to regulate environmental emissions, manage natural resources, manage linkages with the worldwide economy, have strong international co-operation and leadership, as well as make markets function for sustainable development. References Bailey, I, Compston, H & MacGill, I. 2011. The demise of the Australian Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme: A Political Strategy Analysis. European Union, 1-20 Bill, L. 1997. Environmental regulation: The third generation. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. The OECD Observer: 14-18 Darren, S. 1997. Self-Regulation Versus Command and Control? Beyond False Dichotomies. Law & Policy 19: 529-544 Darren, S. 1997. Self-Regulation Versus Command and Control? Beyond False Dichotomies. Law & Policy 19: 545-552 Femia, A.,H. Friedrich, and L. Fred. 2001. Ecological Economic Policy for Sustainable Development: Potentials and Domains of Intervention for Delinking Approaches. Population and Environment: 23(2): 157-174 Ikechukwu, U.,And Chukwuemeka, E. 2013. The Obstacles To Effective Policy Implementation Bythe Public Bureaucracy In Developing Nations: The Case Of Nigeria. Singaporean Journal of Business Economics and management studies 1(8): 34-43 Makinde, T. 2005. Problems of Policy Implementation in Developing Nations: The Nigerian Experience. J. Soc. Sci. 11(1): 63-69 OECD. 2001. Organisation For Economic Co-Operation And Development. Policies To Enhance Sustainable Development: 3-29 Porter, M., and van der Linde, C. 1995. Green and Competitive. Havard Business Review 73(5): 120-134 Steve R. 2006. What drives environmental policy?. Global Environmental Change 16: 4-6 Thomas L. 2001. Cleaner Production: government policies and strategies. Lund: International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics (IlIEE): 41-45 Read More

The level of democracy is another obstacle that can hinder the development of effective environmental policies. Democratic political systems of government are made to transmit popular priorities and concerns into the process of making policies (Steve 2006, 5). In democratic countries such as Australia where public knowledge of global warming is high, an individual would expect an ambitious climate policy, which would however face opposition from dissenting parties. Indeed, a similar situated occurred in Australia.

After criticism of News South Wales's Greenhouse Abatement Certificates (NGACs), most Australians looked forward to have a more ambitions policy, in this case, the emissions trading scheme (ETS) in the 2007 elections. The new government under Kevin Rudd that came after the Howard Coalition implemented the ETS after they assumed power. Afterward, it introduced Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, which was consistent with its promises and ambitions ((Bailey et al 2011, 2-7). However, Tonny Abbott, who wanted a more ambitios policu that would reduce emissions using a ‘simple tax’, also questioned ETS.

This made it difficult for the government to fully implement ETS. On the contrary, if the public opposes climate policy since it may cause harm to short-term economic prospects, the adoption of an ambitious policy within this region may be inhibited by democratic political systems (Femia et al. 2001, 162). Therefore, the straight effect of democratic political systems on global warming mitigation policy can be either negative or positive. The intensity of the carbon emitted is another essential determinant of global warming measures and policies.

If the carbon emitted in industries such as mining, utilities and manufacturing, is not measured well, it can be a great obstacle into the formulation of effective policies (Thomas 2001, 42). State administrative capacity can as well be an obstacle into the development of effective policies. Once political leaders have announced a course of policy action, the stated intention may not be transformed into state policy. This is mainly dependant upon the bureaucracy’s administrative capacity to draft laws and regulations, and present them for executive and legislative approval.

This element is merely addressed implicitly within the political economy literature, though it might be essential. In Australia for instance, there is freedom of media. Weak carbon emissions and strong democracies might however have weak environmental policies because of inadequate capacities to implement and design such policies in addition to enforcing them (OECD 2001, 15). An additional obstacle that can stand in the way of developing effective policies includes the public knowledge of the danger presented by global warming (OECD 2001, 9).

Given the degree to which the government reacts to public pressure, an individual would expect stronger policies to occur as a result of public knowledge concerning global warming. The information used to measure these is obtained from a Gallup poll conducted within 175 countries that inquired from people whether they view global warming as a threat. Additionally, people were asked how much they are acquainted with global warming and if it is brought about by human activity or a natural occurrence.

However, since the public’s understanding of global warming, as unveiled above affects the development of national climate policies, instrumental variable techniques are essential when addressing global warming in democratic political systems of government (Darren 1997, 536). International commitments also serve as an obstacle when developing effective policies. In each country the type of globally negotiated carbon emission reduction targets will play a part in domestic polities’ and leaders’ cost or benefit considerations on global warming policy innovation (Bill 1997, 16).

Therefore, for confirmation of the Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and the emission-reduction target size, the government for effective development of policies gets to control international commitments.

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