Air Pollution and Childrens Health - Literature review Example

Air Pollution and Children’s Health: A Literature Review Author’s Name Grade course Institution Tutor Date Introduction Children are very vulnerable to air pollution as compared to adults. The relationship between pollution and children’s health has been a subject of a lot of research. There has been a lot of literature on the subject. Schwartz writes that there should be a cause for concern when young children are exposed to air pollution. The vulnerability of children results from the fact that the exposure happens despite the lungs of such children not being fully developed. Children are therefore at a greater risk than adults when in an environment that has air which is full of pollutants. Children are likely to be outdoors more often and for longer than adults. Being outdoors means that children are in contact with high levels of pollution which emanate from power plants, traffic and other sources. For a long time, it has been known that air pollution make minor illnesses worse. However, studies that have been carried out lately show a very worrying trend (Schwartz 2004, pp. 234-250). Seaton examines the relationship between air pollution, more so pollution from traffic which has been seen as increasing infant mortality. Such pollution is also significant in development of atopy and asthma. Acute bronchitis has also been associated with particles which are found in polluted air (Seaton 2001, pp. 176-178). Children who are afflicted by bronchitis were found to fare much worse in areas where the air was more polluted. In modern times, industrialization has led to increased pollution of air especially where those responsible do not see the need to incur additional costs in minimizing hazardous emissions. There is a lot of evidence from research which shows that children are particularly amenable to the effects of air pollution. The following essay exams the phenomenon of air pollution and the additional problems that are being experienced by young children at an unprecedented levels. The essay therefore examines at length the work that has been written on the subject of pollution and negative effects on children. Discussion A lot of literature has been written with regard to the large number of adverse effects that air pollutants have on children's health. The number of children who die young has increased due to the presence of pollutants in the air (Seaton 2001, pp. 176-178). According to Schwartz, areas where there are higher levels of pollution, perineonatal mortality rates have been observed to increase (Schwartz 2004, pp. 234-250). Pollution also leads to a higher rate of deaths for children and for those who have asthma, their situation becomes worse and this is evidence by the fact such children have to visit hospital very often for emergency attention or even admissions in hospitals. Children in areas with high levels of pollution have higher incidences with respiratory infections which last longer than usual. The functioning of lungs in children found in areas with high rates of pollution is negatively affected to a large extent. Writer have also examined effects that arise as a consequence of air pollution is markedly higher incidents of sickness and such children being absent from kindergartens. This results partly from lead which is inhaled from exhaust emanating from automobile exhaust. Uncontrolled burning of coals is a cause for very high levels of pollution especially in areas that are enclosed. Developing countries have lower levels of indoor pollution. However, the countries that are developing are seeing an increase in the amount of traffic and hence increase in the levels of poisonous gas that is released. The duration between conception and birth of a child is a very delicate one and the developing child is particularly vulnerable. Kim has, in his writings written on the issue of vulnerability of children in early stages of development. The environment in which the mother lives could have a lasting effect on the health of the developing child. The foetus goes through rapid changes and the organs develop during this period. The environment in which a mother lives could mean the difference between healthy and unhealthy development of a child. There is mounting evidence that exposure of a mother to environmental hazards could results of children being born underweight or even prematurely. There are also many cases where children are born with birth defects (Kim 2004, pp. 123-134). Children whose mothers have been exposed to air pollutants are more likely to die during infancy than those whose mother has been living in the proper environment. Those children who survive infancy are likely to experience problems with the digestive system, the brain or even the respiratory system. Ribeiro and Cardoso have written extensively on the impact of the kind of environment that the mother is exposed to. The two writers contend that there is evidence that delays in growth and development while the child is still in the womb maybe the cause of diabetes and heart diseases when children become adults. Early childhood marks an important period where several biological systems develop and reach maturity (Ribeiro & Cardoso 2003, pp. 221-234). These systems include the immune systems, lungs and the brain. Toxins can cause damage to the functioning of the lungs and impair neurological development. It is especially risky for children who were born prematurely since additional insults from the environment may result in their conditions worsening. Nicolai points out that the exact compounds which are found in the air and which negatively affect the reproductive and children's health are not very well known. It is also not very clear how exposure to the harmful compounds results in improper growth of the foetus, premature birth or even the development of respiratory diseases in children. The study of the impact that pollution of air has on reproduction is an area that is still being studied and thus there are many questions that are yet to get answers (Nicolai 1999, pp.475-8). However, emerging evidence points to the fact that exposure to air pollution during pregnancy and in infancy predisposes children to adverse effects in health. In his writing, Nicolai has observed the long held view that here has been a long history which has brought out the relationship that exists between smoking and poor health in the children born. Studies to investigate the relationship between air pollution and infant mortality began quite recently. The main focus of the studies was the how particles carried in the air could cause death in children. Those particles under study are those that are so small that they are able to penetrate the respiratory tract of the human. Findings based on research show that infants who live in areas where there are high levels of pollutants were likely to die from respiratory infections within the first year of their lives. Infants who get exposure to nitrogen dioxide in high concentrations risked dying from Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (Nicolai 1999, pp.475-8). According to Trasande (2005, p.691), organs are very complex. Most organs in the body are made up of just a few types of cells. However, the lungs are made from not less than 40 different types of cells. Each of the cells plays an important role in maintaining body's fitness and maintaining health. Air pollution effects change on the cells that make up the lungs. This happens because pollution damages the cells that are most vulnerable. Where the cells that get damaged are critical in the development of new parts of the lungs which are particularly important, this could result in the lung probably not achieving full growth and thus fail to function as expected during the growth from childhood to adulthood (Trasande 2005, pp. 689-699). Research conducted on health of children point to the fact that children who suffer from asthma have higher risks of suffering from asthma attacks if they live in areas where the levels of ozone are higher and other particles are also available. The risk is increased where such children take part in at least three competitive sports. There are pollutants that have been found to have worse impact on the health of children that that of adults as pointed out by Ostro in his writings. Ozone is among the most common types of pollutants that are present. Ozone refers to a molecule that is made of three oxygen atoms and these atoms are joined together very strongly. When ozone gets into contact with a surface it quickly releases the extra force it possesses in form of chemical energy (Ostro 2000, pp.713-723). Where this process happens in systems that are biological which include the respiratory tract, the energy can result in sensitive tissue in the upper and lower airways being damaged. According to Ostro, ozone is formed from solar energy and the photochemical reactions of pollutants. The highest concentrations of ozone are to be found when the intensity of sunlight is at its peak (Ostro 2000, pp.713-723). The writer also points out that summer months experience the highest levels of ozone especially during the middle of the day. Therefore pollution brought about by ozone changes with seasons and happens mostly during the day. Ozone has a number of effects such as higher production of mucus and coughing. Other effects of ozone are irritation to the throat and the nose, irritation of the eyes and chest pain could also result. Ozone results in lungs being damaged as pointed out by Seaton in his writings. He states that when one breath in air contaminated with ozone, it dissolves in the fluids found on the respiratory tract. The writer further observes that ozone is therefore able to get to the gas-exchange region which is deep in the lung. Gas-exchange is referred that way since oxygen which is inhaled gets into the blood in the tiny blood vessels which are to be found in the thin walls which separate the air spaces of the alveolar. Seaton writes that during this process, carbon dioxide which is produced during the process of metabolism and which has been dissolved in the blood leaves the blood into the air which is breathed out (Seaton 2001, pp. 176-178). A normal alveolus has very thin walls. Only two layers of cells and a very thin interstitial matrix separates the air found in the alveolar space and the fluid which is found inside blood vessels. When exposed to ozone, the alveolar walls become thicker and more macrophages get into the alveolar spaces. According to Ribeiro and Cardoso, the type I cells which are thin get damaged only to be replaced with Type II cells which are thicker and hence more resistant to the negative effects of the ozone(Ribeiro & Cardoso 2003, pp. 221-234). Different writers have expressed the fact that carbon monoxide in other air pollutants that affects children. It is a colourless gas that has no smell and it is a result of combustion. When this gas is inhaled, a rapid reaction takes place between the carbon monoxide and haemoglobin. This reduced the capacity of blood to take up and transport oxygen. Carbon monoxide gets attached to haemoglobin quite easily and also stays in blood for quite some time. A majority of health effects that have a direct association with carbon dioxide result from a decrease in delivery of oxygen to key organs such as the brain and the heart. Carbon monoxide has an almost immediate effect on people who have heart conditions. According to McConne, people who have diseases of the lungs which reduce the efficiency of oxygen breathed in very susceptible (McConne 1999, pp.757-760). Such diseases include emphysema and asthma. When carbon monoxide reaches high levels, the central nervous system gets impaired and the ability to reduce to stimuli is reduced by a great deal. In severe cases, death can result from carbon monoxide poisoning. There are various sources of carbon monoxide. Exhaust from automotives and emissions coming from combustion sources that are on a large scale result not only in carbon monoxide but also nitrogen oxides and fine particles. Since these pollutants come into combination and it becomes difficult to isolate the effects of each pollutant. Research findings written by Pope indicate that there are also indoor sources of carbon monoxide. Indoors, carbon monoxide is produced from water heaters; gas burners, gas ovens, and heating systems. Smoking of tobacco produces a significant amount of carbon monoxide (Pope 1995, pp. 472-480). The writer further contends that carbon monoxide results in hundreds of deaths each year and in some cases severe illnesses which is caused by poisoning from carbon monoxide. The exact number of poisoning by carbon monoxide cannot be established with accuracy because the symptoms of poisoning by carbon monoxide are similar to those of flu. Carbon monoxide could have negative effect on babies who are unborn (Pope 1995, pp. 472-480). Pregnant women who are exposed to carbon monoxide have a high risk of giving birth to children who have low birth weights. For long, many researchers have written that women who smoked tobacco while pregnant gave birth to underweight babies which is consistent with the position where other women get exposed to carbon monoxide in the environment. Babies that get exposure to carbon monoxide when their organs are still mature could end up having permanent damage to the organs so exposed such as lungs and the brain. Studies conducted on rats that are new born show that exposure to carbon monoxide does result in tissue of the heart muscle. Before such rats become adults the severity of artery constriction increases before such rats reach adulthood. There is a possibility that exposure of children to carbon monoxide could have a similar effect. Nitrogen Oxides are another source of pollution and it is largely produced during combustion processes according to Trasande. The vast amount of nitrogen oxide produced is in the form of nitric oxide. Nitrous oxide is also produced in small amounts (Trasande 2005, pp. 689-699). Nitrous oxide is a 'greenhouse' gas and is plays a role in increasing the problem of global. Nitric oxide reacts with oxygen and nitrogen dioxide results. When it is dark, nitrogen dioxide reacts with the ozone and it forms a free radical which is very reactive. The free radical so formed can then react with organic compounds that are found in the air and forms nitrogenated organic compounds. Some researchers have come up with literature that points us to the fact that some of the organic compounds that are formed have been shown to cause cancer. The most important nitrogen oxide compound which causes adverse health effects is nitrogen dioxide. About 10 times of nitrogen as compared to ozone is required to result in inflammation and lung irritation. The difference between ozone and nitrogen dioxide is that the latter results in suppression of the immune system to a very large extent. Studies have indicated that children who get exposed to high level of nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere increase chances of contracting respiratory infections. Studies conducted on rats point to the fact that rats that have had previous exposure to nitrogen dioxide have far less immunity to bacteria and thus the immune system is severely weakened. According to McConne, in the 1970s initial studies were conducted to show the relationship between the concentration of nitrogen dioxide and lung related illnesses (McConne 1999, pp.757-760). The studies have showed that children suffering from asthma have a higher likelihood that those without to experience reduced functioning of the lungs and also irritation of the respiratory system for example sore throat and coughing. There are studies which have clearly shown that children under the age of five years are more likely to be affected by nitrogen dioxide that children who are older. Exposure of children to nitrogen dioxide has been shown to result in such children being susceptible to infections of the respiratory systems and more severe reactions to allergens. There are studies which do not show a relationship between the level of nitrogen dioxide outdoors and adverse health outcomes in children. Part of the problem for the researcher is accounting for the influence that indoor sources of nitrogen dioxide have. Ostro points out that lead is another pollutant that affects children. Exposure to lead is through water, food and air. Lead is a heavy metal that is also highly toxic. Lead poisoning results in the nerves being damages and the ability of the body to make haemoglobin is greatly impaired and this leads to a form of anaemia. There are different sources of pollution by lead. Lead is emitted in large amounts to the atmosphere when it is used as an additive in gasoline. The lead emitted in that way is capable of being inhaled (Ostro 2000, pp.713-723). Lead fallout does occur from the air and the result is that plants, water, soil, plant and food products get contaminated. The measure of lead in children's blood is a result of exposure to the environment. Where low levels of lead are found in the blood of children who are aged six or seven does result in changes in intelligence quotient of such children reducing. There are also noticeable changes in perceptual-motor kills. When there are higher levels of exposure to lead, there can be damage to kidneys and this could explain high blood pressure in adults. In the writings by Pope it is evident that Sulphur Oxides are also a major source of pollution. Emissions resulting from activities of man and which produce sulphur dioxide are primarily from burning of fossil fuels such as diesel, coal and oil. The greater amount of sulphur found in fossil fuels turns into sulphur dioxide though a small amount becomes sulphuric acid. While in the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide can also get converted to sulphuric and other particles that contain sulphates. Sulphur dioxide is highly soluble in water (Pope 1995, pp. 472-480). The effect is that the greatest portion of the sulphur dioxide inhaled gets absorbed in the respiratory tract and therefore does not get into the airways of the lungs. There is a small amount of sulphur dioxide that penetrates into the airways and this can result into serious effects health wise and this mostly to people suffering from asthma. Bates further points out that lower respiratory diseases are associated with exposure to gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide (Bates 1995, pp. 49-53). The admissions for children to hospital who suffer from asthma could increase by one fifth after an acute exposure to ozone peaks and also sulphur dioxide. Exposure for a long time to high levels of nitrogen dioxide, fine particles and sulphur dioxide could result in a very high increase in respiratory symptoms. As Trasande observes, the past thirty years has seen many efforts being made to reduce air pollution though this problem has not been completely dealt with. Children are more vulnerable to adults from air pollution. In a lot of cases, children could be exposed for a longer duration to pollutants than adults. Children also tend to breath at a higher rate than adults (Trasande 2005, pp. 689-699). This increases the exposure of children to pollutants found in the air. Infants and children also breach using their mouths. This means that such children do not breathe in air which has been filtered, a function that is carried out by the nose. This means that children are bound to take in more pollutants than adults. Bates observes that children are also likely to spend more time outdoors than adults this is especially during months of summer (Bates 1995, pp. 49-53). This also coincides with the highest levels of smog as Pope observes. Air pollutants also affect children more than adults because of the immaturity of the immune systems and their developing organs also happen to be immature (Pope 1995, pp. 472-480). The writer gives an example is inhaled lead which gets to be deposited easily in the bones of children which are fast growing. The irritation and inflammation which results from pollution of the air is able to affect children more because their airways are narrower and can be easily obstructed. Due to the fact that a child's respiratory system is still developing, it is easier for an asthma attack to get triggered easily in addition to other ailments related to breathing because the child's respiratory happens to be quite sensitive since it is still developing. Different researchers tend to agree that there is a relationship between pollution and health of children including those that are yet to be born. However, different researchers do not agree in entirety on what exactly causes challenges in children. It is therefore difficult to reconcile all the research work done by various writers. This is because they use different techniques to collect and analyze their data. However, it is clear that young children are particularly vulnerable to air pollution as compared to adults. The different writings also tend to point that the environment in which a mother lives in during pregnancy is an important indicator as to the health status of the child that is eventually born. The research conducted on the effects of pollution have a long way to go and it is therefore important that more the scientific community continues carrying out more tests and get to determine the exact impact of different components found in polluted air to the health of young children. Conclusion Many writers have pointed out that due to the fact that children's immune systems are still developing and also due to the fact that the amount that they drink and breath is more relative to the size of their bodies and also the fact that children are explorative, they are more prone to health risks from the environment. There is need for awareness that activities carried out by man have very great consequences on the health of children. It is therefore important that the right steps ought to be taken so that the health of the environment in which children live in is protected at all costs. It is therefore important that policies which are meant to reduce pollution and ensure protection of children are passed. Some of the programs that could be explored would include ensuring that children are not exposed to emissions from school buses. This can be attained by using anti-idling campaigns. Use of clean diesel technologies is also critical in ensuring that the well being of children is protected. Measures need to be taken to ensure that the air children breath while indoors is of a very high quality. The rates of chronic illnesses are in children are increasing the world over as reflected in the different literature available on scientific tests carried out. The causes of the increase in the childhood illnesses have not been fully comprehended. However, the cause can only be seen from the interaction of the environment and genetics. The rates at which the changes are taking place are so high that this cannot be ascribed to genetic pre disposition. Therefore, measures require to be taken to mitigate the environmental factors which result in high instances of illnesses especially to the most vulnerable members of any population. Statistics paint a grim picture. The number of asthma cases has increased and so are the mortality rates from the same in children. Cancer has also increased in children and so are the cases of neurological disorders that afflict children. Birth defects and learning disabilities have also been on the rise. It is therefore time that something is done before it is too late. References Bates, DV 1995, 'The effects of air pollution on children’ Environ. Health Perspective. Vol.103, no. 6, pp. 49-53. Kim, JJ 2004, 'Ambient air pollution: health hazards to children', American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health. McConne, R et. Al 1999, ‘Air pollution and bronchitic symptoms in Southern California children with asthma.' Environ Health Perspect, vol.107, no.9, pp 757-760. Nicolai, T 1999, Monaldi Archives for chest disease. The Lancet, vol.54, no.6, pp, 475-8. 'Ostro, BD et. al 2000, Epidemiology of fine particulate air pollution and human health: biolocial mechanisms and who's at risk? Environ Health Perspecdt. Vol.108, no.4, pp 713-723. Pope, CA 1995, Health effects of particulate air pollution: time for reassessment? Journal of allergy and clinical immunology vol.103, no.5, pp. 472-480. Ribeiro, H & Cardoso, M 2003, Air pollution and children's health in Sao Paulo. (1986-1998). Journal of Social Science & Medicine, vol 57. Schwartz, J 2004, ‘Air Pollution and Children's Health’, American Academy of Pediatrics. Seaton, A MD, 2001, 'Particulate air pollution and acute health effects,' The Lancet, vol 345, no 8943, pp. 176-178. Trasande, L et. al 2005, 'The role of air pollution in asthma and other pediatric morbidities' Journal of allergy and clinical immunology, 2005 vo. 115 No. 4 pp. 689-699. Read More