Emergency Humanitarian Assistance - Assignment Example

 Emergency Humanitarian Assistance 1) ‘Disasters are not natural, but are manmade phenomena’. Justify or refute this statement by reference to the literature and providing adequate examples. The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters defines disasters as unforeseen events that causes great damage, destruction and human suffering, which overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a national or international level assistance (CRED, 2010). There is no standard classification of disasters (table 1), but a spectrum of negative events that vary from the natural to manmade. Table 1. Selective frameworks for grouping disasters Author Framework Bates (2002) Three categories based on: Disasters (unintended catastrophic events); Expropriations (with destruction of environment, making it unfit for human habitation); Deterioration (incremental deterioration of environment) Keane (2004) Five classes: Natural disasters; Long-term environmental degradation; Development; Industrial accidents; Remnants of war. Richmond Five categories: Naturally induced disasters: earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, droughts, volcanic eruptions, fires, tornadoes, famines, electric storms, avalanches, whirlwinds, hail and snow storms, lightning and plagues (Hugo, 2009); Technologically induced disasters; Economically induced disasters’ Politically induced disasters; Socially induced disasters. Source: Swing, W.L., “Migration and natural disasters” in Laczko, F. and Aghazarm, C., (eds.) Migration, environment and climate change: assessing the evidence, Geneva: International Organization for Migration, 2009, p. 250 The face of the worlds is hit by a plethora of disasters that range from hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, fires, to radiation, social conflicts, epidemics or complex economic crises. The recent events from Japan, New Zeeland, Iceland, Washington D.C. brought to the centre of attention Thomas Malthus’ theory of population, which states that the power of earth to provide subsistence for man is limited, and when we reach this point, there will be food shortage, disease and death as nature’s ways to control population growth. So balance is needed. There is a general consensus that natural disasters have transformed into a constant feature of the global environment, affecting almost every region or landscape known to man. Catastrophic storms and strange whether patterns and make room for large debates on what is really “natural”, bringing into discussion the implications of mankind in the process of climate change. As a result, a new terrifying phenomenon is rising: the man-made natural disaster. There is a very thin line between natural and what we call manmade disasters. Human actions are sometimes implicated even in what we think of as purely natural catastrophes (Kazuo, 2011, p.1). From this perspective, if human behaviour is irrational, the nature forces intervene and restore the world’s balance. Though no one could predict events like volcanic eruptions or earthquakes or landslides due to geographic position related-factors, there are some things that can be controlled in order to prevent or limit certain devastating happenings. It is the case of global warming, a topic of utmost importance; the stop of CO2 emission is vital, although it is not enough to avoid any disaster that is going to happen in the near future. In this line, the understanding of natural phenomena and nature itself must be another priority (Ouchi, 2011). A recent study of Min et al. 2011 published in the Canadian Nature journal focuses on the evolution of rainfall at a global level from 1951 to 1999 comparing for the first time their observation with climate artificially-created simulations, considering also the implications of man made greenhouse emissions. Similar, the work of Pall et al. 2011 released in the same journal forged a connection between man made global warming and the large floods in Britain in 2000, indicating that the risk doubled. Based on data since 1851, Stott et al. 2004 emphasized in their paper that human factor influence has at least doubled the risk of a heat wave as bad as the terrible European one appeared in 2003, which was the hottest year over the last half millennium. History does not lack a great number of man made natural disasters; to underline this affirmation, here are some examples of human error, ending up in large catastrophe losses: Great Boston Molasses Tragedy-15 January, 1919 in Massachusetts, United States. A large wave of molasses at least eight feet high rushed through the streets at a speed of 35 miles per hour destroying buildings and vehicles, burying animals, injuring more than 150 people and killing 21 locals. The draining of lake Peigneur-20 November 1980 in the US state of Louisiana. Because of a miscalculation of Texaco drill puncturing parameters, the bottom of the lake was opened, which triggered a range of events that transformed the 3 meter deep freshwater lake into a salt water one with a deep hole. Sidoarjo Mud Flow or Lapindo mud: 27 May 2006 in East Java, Indonesia. Again, a drill miscalculation caused hydraulic fractures around the borehole that combined with the pressure generated the eruption of a mud volcano. Since that date, hot mud has been continuously flowing, with no positive perspectives. It has inundated villages and rice paddies, destroyed fish and shrimp ponds, damaged the infrastructure, making unfunctional 25 factories and left 1.5 million people without their homes. Aberfan disaster: 21 October, 1966. On that date, 144 people, 116 of them children, lost their lives when a 150,000 cubic metres of water-saturated debris broke away and devastated the village of Aberfan in South Wales. Even though the group working on the mountain realized the tragedy that was about to happen, they couldn’t do anything to raise the alarm because the phone cable had been…repeatedly stolen. Vajont Dam: 1963, Monte Toc, 100 km North of Venice, Italy. The signs predicting the future catastrophe in 1963, namely the minor earth and landslides movements, followed by an 800,000 square metres landslide collapse into the lake were ignored. In 1963, the unexpected happened and the dam crushed. Several villages were destroyed, around 2000 people were killed and more than 350 families lost their relatives, friends, belongings and homes. Centralia: May 1962, Centralia, Pennsylvania. The ghost town of Centralia is one of the least-populated areas in Pennsylvania, with a population of only ten residents in 2010, from an initial number of 1000 inhabitants in 1981. Until today, the causes that ignited the fire making Centralia a living hell remain unknown. However, there is some evidence that point to grave human negligence, as the firefighters had not extinguished correctly the fire after they cleaned up the town landfill so it spread into the abandoned coal mines of Centralia. As a result of the carbon monoxide and dioxide and the lack of normal oxygen levels there were reported numerous adverse health effects. The human factor influence on the planet is very strong. Every day, the changes brought to the environment in which we live turn the planet into a more dangerous place. Manmade natural disasters become even more terrifying and increase their frequency. And the future outlook it is not bright. We experience all sorts of things in an uncontrolled manner, thus harming the only planet we have. Recent studies show that in the last century, sea level rose by up to 20 cm (Sawada et al, 2011). This evolution caused by the global warming could be furthermore explained by two elements: the melting of the ice cap and the glaciers and by the thermal expansion of oceans. As ocean warms, it expands. In addition, more and more islands are affected by rising sea levels. Some risk areas are completely covered by water, and thus removed from the map. For example, in the region of Funafuti, Tuvalu’s capital, sea level rises on the island at 5.6 mm a year, twice as the average global rate (Sawada et al, 2011 ). In many parts of the world, population growth leads to the expansion of urban centers, which means that appear more and more poor areas, where life is miserable. This dynamic makes that most of the consequences of natural disasters to be even more severe. For example, in some places, deforestation is a way of making a living. But there is rising concern and the experts say deforestation threatens the very survival of the planet. This phenomenon became a real threat in 2004, when appeared more and more of mud flows, caused by torrential rains, making ​​thousands of human victims. Even drought can be aggravated by those who grub up forests, because with the tree cutting, the soil dries out faster. Moreover, in case of a fire caused by heat that extends and affects deforested regions, they burn twice as fast, because they are drier and the sun has a much stronger effect. But without any doubt, the rains are not the worst natural disasters. Million earthquakes occur annually worldwide (but many are not observable). Although quite rare, there are extremely destructive earthquakes. According to the historians, the most powerful earthquake in the world took place in China in 1556 when 830,000 people died (Richmond, 1993). But earthquakes do not have limited consequences; sometimes, they are followed by fires and tsunamis with devastating implications. Almost half the world's major cities are located in high seismic risk areas. Once again, we see the human negligence and irresponsibility. Besides the fact that people do not take into account the existence of a possible seismic risk, they use building materials out of poor quality in order to save money, creating additional risks. To summarize, the destructive power of nature must not always be considered as an inflictor of violence, because sometimes human society unleashes its terrible forces by its reckless actions, harming the nature maybe even worse that it harms us. 2) What are the public health consequences of conflicts and disasters? Illustrate by using one particular case study. People all around the world experience a vast plethora of risks arising from health, weather, economics and policy-related shock. From a public health perspective, disasters are defined by what they do to people; otherwise, disasters are simple geological and meteorological phenomena (Bhatia, 2011, p.1) In the last century, a number of high-profile natural and man-made disasters hit both developed and emerging countries (Sawada et al., 2011, p.2), claiming millions of lives and affecting the livelihoods of others (table 2). Table 2. The deadliest natural disasters Rank Location Event Date Death Toll 1 China Flood July- Nov, 1931 1,000,000-2,500,000 2 China- Yellow river Flood Sep- Oct, 1887 900,000–2,000,000 3 China-- Shaanxi Earth Quake January 23, 1556 830,000 4 Pakistan- Now Bangladesh Cyclone Nov 13, 1970 500,000 5 Haiti- Port-au-Prince Earth Quake January 12, 2010 316,000 6 India Cyclone Nov 25, 1839 300,000 7 Turkey-(Antioch, Byzantine Empire) Earth Quake May, 526 250,000–300,000 8 China-Tangshan, Hebei Earth Quake July 28, 1976 242,419- 665,000 9 China-Haiyuan, Ningxia-Gansu Earth Quake Dec 16, 1920 234,117 10 Indonesia- Sumatra Tsunami-Indian Ocean Dec 26, 2004 230,210 11 Japan Tohoku Earth Quake Mar 11, 2011 15,760 5,927 injured Source: Disasters 2011, List of national disasters by death toll. Almost always, natural catastrophes increase the number of disease vectors. Hurricanes, floods and tsunamis, for example, bring into the centre of attention the mosquitoes-induced diseases such as malaria, yellow fewer, Japanese B encephalitis, dengue or filariais in regions with endemic pathogens. Table 3. Theoretic risk of acquiring communicable disease, by type of disasters Disaster Type Person-to Person Water-borne+ Food-borne@ Vector-borne! Earthquake Medium Medium Medium Low Volcanic eruption Medium Medium Medium Low Hurricane Medium High Medium High Tornado Low Low Low Low Heat wave Low Low Low Low Cold Wave Low Low Low Low Flood Medium High Medium High Famine High High Medium Medium War/Refuges High High High Medium Air Polution Low Low Low Low Industrial accident Low Low Low Low Fire Low Low Low Low Radiation Low Low Low Low Source: Bhatia, R., “The Public Health consequences of Disasters”, United Nations World Food Programe, Regional Bureay for Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 2011, p. 7 Note: *= Shigellosis, streptococcal skin infections, scabies, infectious hepatitis, pertussis, measles, diphtheria, tuberculosis, respiratory infections, HIV/AIDS, other sexually transmitted diseases, pneumonic plague. + = Typhoid, cholera, E.coli, amebiasis; @= Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, cholera, salmonellosis; ! = Louse-borne typhus, plague, relapsing fever, malaria, dengue. Experiencing a disaster is the most terrifying event a person can face, with serious traumatic impact both in the short- and in the long-run on mental health, such as depression, dissociation or post-traumatic stress disorder and with horrible effects on human body (table 3). Table 3. Various disaster effect on health Disaster type Diseases and other implications Earthquake Dehydration, hypothermia, hyperthermia, crush syndrome, wound infections or postoperative sepsis, external or internal bleeding, drowning from earthquake-induced tidal waves (tsunamis), myocardial infarction, exacerbation of chronic diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, anxiety, depression or respiratory diseases caused by exposure to dust and asbestos fibbers from rubble. Climate change and heat waves Cardiovascular diseases: dysrhythmias, deranged coagulation and thrombosis, blood vessel dysfunction and atherosclerotic disease, compromised heart function, deep venous thromboses, ischemic heart disease, myocardial infarction, sudden cardiac death, development of stress-related cardiomyopathy, pulmonary embolism; Illness associated with Vibrio bacteria, higher pollen production, worsening allergies, asthma, respiratory allergies, anxiety or despair. Flood Malaria, fever, diarrhea, cholera, cryptosporidiosis, poliomyelitis, rotavirus, typhoid and paratyphoid, gastroenteritis, oyster-related hepatitis A, lymphatic filariasis, arbovirus disease, hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, leptospirosis, dengue hemorrhagic fever, anxiety, depression, irritability, sleeplessness, effects of chemical contamination, infection from soil helminthes, schistosomiasis. Hurricans Increased risk for infection from mold, hepatocellular cancer, hepatic failure, asthma, allergies, bacterial or viral infections, allergic rhinitis, allergic fungal sinusitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis, inhalation fever, fungal infections, blastomycosis. Source: authorial calculation Some recent studies argue that droughts and floods could lead to psychological problems such as anxiety, depression and even suicide. Australian experts in natural disasters have published a new report which shows that one in five people are mentally affected by change, either becoming depressive or violent. For example, after a few months after the tragedy caused by tropical Cyclone Larry in Australia in 2006, one in ten children suffered posttraumatic stress disorder, and for many years, in some rural communities, the suicide rate maintained at 8% (c). Researchers also found that, after disasters with long-term consequences, the rate of community solidarity drastically decreases and remains low for a long time. The most affected by these changes are children. The long-run effects are felt more strongly in developing countries or rural areas where people have little access to mental health services. After ten years of studies, American researches have reached a similar conclusion. The events of 11 September 2001 had serious effects on health, causing lung cancer to firefighters, respiratory problems and depression for intervention and rescue personnel (Min et al, 2011). Ten years after the terrorist attacks the prestigious British journal The Lancet published a whole file on this subject, including different studies, three editorials and numerous annexes. Mount Sinai School of Medicine New York experts have analyzed a sample of 27,000 people out of the 50,000 policemen, firefighters, constructors, municipal clerks, and found that they suffered serious physical and mental health problems: 28% got asthma, 42% sinus infections, 39% gastroesophageal reflux. Almost half of them had reduced respiratory capacity, 28% suffered from depression, 32% of posttraumatic stress and 21% from panic disorder (Hugo, 2009). The figures were lower in the case of policemen, more familiar with high stress situations. A complementary study shows that US reaction to wars in Iraq and Afghanistan had also adverse health effects. It mentions the 1568 American soldiers killed in Afghanistan, the 4408 military deaths in Iraq, plus the victims of United Nations intervention troops. The study also mentions the 8832 Afghan civilians killed between 2007 and 2010, tens of thousands of dead in Iraq and tens of thousands of soldiers wounded in the two countries, not to mention those suffering from mental problems after the return in the US. Access to vital things became very difficult: in Afghanistan, 80% of people living in the rural areas drink contaminated water while 25% from Iraq’s population does not have access to clean water (Hugo, 2009). Children suffer from malnutrition, health facilities are damaged or destroyed and medical staff have been killed or fled. On April 26, 1986 Chernobyl witnessed the most terrifying nuclear accident in history, with disastrous consequences on public health and the environment and with major economic and social importance. Twenty five years after this catastrophe, the word "Chernobyl" entered into collective consciousness and gained mythical proportions. Sadly, its effects are still visible, on both the human society and the environment. The Chernobyl disaster implications go beyond any imagination. Accidents such as Chernobyl or Fukushima affected communities that have banned nuclear projects in their territory; unfortunately, radioactivity does not stop at the border, and it does not need a visa to affect the environment and people from neighboring states. The most severe health effect has been felt mainly by four population groups: The liquidators, including military personnel and civilians (600,000 people) who cleaned-up the accident’ place limiting the extent of the disaster and who later build the concrete sarcophagus over the reactor; The evacuated population from extremely contaminated regions inside the 30-km area around the power plant; Residents of the less although still high-risk of contamination territories; Children born into the above-mentioned families. Perspectives on public health are dark; they are included in the environmental or civilization diseases area. The infiltration of radioactive substances into the human body causes different genetic mutations, blood diseases, cancer, etc. Ex post Chernobyl, a new syndrome appeared: radiofobia, affecting especially the exposed persons. It is an excess anxiety of the population concerning the high levels of radiation, generated by the psychological trauma of Chernobyl. It is characterized by various forms of psychopathology such as neuroses, depression or nostalgia. The consequences of the Chernobyl disaster on human health were catastrophic, ranging from different types of cancer to various changes in the respiratory system, bone marrow system, peripheral blood and vascular system. Here are some of the most frequent diseases caused by exponential radiation level of Chernobyl fallout: cancer- a sudden increase of leukemia and thyroid cancer cases affecting especially liquidators. They are also under pressure from psychological factors: anxiety, concentration problems, insecurity, headaches, feeling of victimization and insecurity, sleep disturbances, social isolation, etc. Liquidators are viewed as bioroboths- a category of people frustrated and marginalized frequently affected by a phenomenon of suicide. The danger of understanding Chernobyl tragedy consequences on their livers is obvious: "Nobody understands us, neither in hospitals, nor clinics, living dead… We have no memory. You forget everything; you are dead. "(Bahnarel et al. 2006, p.7). chromosomal aberrations in Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, significantly higher than the global average value; diseases of the urogenital system affecting the population still living in the most contaminated areas of Ukraine. In the period 1988-1999, there were recorded a double number of cases than normal. an increased number of viruses of hepatitis B and C as well as greater spread of viruses D and G. Between 1993-1997, evidences point out a number of 2,814 adolescents and adults from Vitebsk (Russia) suffering with these affections. neurological and psychological disorders; endocrine problems that involve particularly the thyroid gland. According to some studies, for each case of thyroid cancer there are other 100 hypothyroidism disorders; diabetes-based on research in Belarus, the cases of insulin-dependent diabetes at a young age increased by 28%; disorders of the eyes such as cataracts (including in newborn infants), and other problems with greater frequency than in neighbouring, cleaner areas; various disorders of the immune system, with decreased resistance to infection and increase of allergic diseases especially in children; cardiovascular problems-some studies argue that Cesium-137 isotope frequently found in contaminated areas stays in the myocardium, causing serious arrhythmias and cardiomyopathy. Hypertension pressure problems were also reported. According to some data, the prevalence of cardiovascular disease is 4.000/100.000 among liquidators and 3.000/100.000 among locals living close to the reactor, a 1.600/100.000 rate in the general population. decreased fertility among liquidators and the sharp decrease in the natality rate, especially in the most affected areas by the spread of radioactive materials; effects on pregnancy-the high levels of Cesium-137 in the placenta raised the number of miscarriages and doubled the cases of mental retardation of fetuses. Moreover, irradiation in first week of pregnancy leads to spontan abortion. An analysis of the data from the Belarus national register of congenital malformations showed an increase after 1986, mostly in the high-risk contamination regions. Similar, a study from Ukraine indicates that the number of genetic mutations in the case of liquidator’s children is seven times higher than children from the same families, but born before 1986. Clearly, the overall body of evidence concerning human health impacts of the radiation released by the Chernobyl accident is highly diverse and complex and of great significance (Geenpeace, 2006, p.18). All mixed into the word “Chernobyl” are technocratic adventurism and the heroism of liquidators, human solidarity and the cowardice of leaders (frightened to warn their citizens about the terrible outcomes and, thereby, greatly increasing the number of innocent victims), the sufferings of many and the self-interest of others (Yablokov, 2006, p.20) At the beginning the twenty-first century, more than ever, humans realized the planet belongs to us all and the galloping pace of complex societies development endangers its existence. Regardless of the political, social or mental context, there is one dimension that unites all people- the care for environment and its preservation for the future generations. 3) On the basis of the film, ‘Cry from the Grave’, review the role of the military in a humanitarian crisis In recent years an increasing number of entities-especially non-governmental organization, but also foreign militaries have started to engage in offering global disaster assistance. The role of military forces in providing humanitarian assistance and protection to civilians in case of disasters has a major significance. From Berlin Airlift in 1948, one of the most important relief efforts in history and until today, military forces have been involved in crisis responses in different international regions such as Afghanistan, Bosnia, Caribbean, Iraq, Rwanda, Indonesia, Sudan, Bangladesh or Japan. The United States is the most proactive in making its military assets available for disaster response, which is partly explained by the financial and military resources at its disposal and by the fact that the USA maintains a number of military bases worldwide, enabling it to reach the affected countries very quickly (SIPRI, 2008, p.32). In case of a military intervention following a large scale disaster, the most common type of asset provided is aircraft capacity, particularly evident in the situation of Central and South America and Caribbean crisis (the 1998 hurricane Mitch in the Caribbean, the 1999 severe flooding in Venezuela and the 2004 tropical windstorm in Haiti), Europe, Asia-Pacific and Africa. Military medical support assets, in the shape of medical suppliers, mobile clinics, field hospitals staffed by military doctors, nurses and other professions are another vital factor to disaster relief operations. After the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004, the US, the UK, Germany, Canada, the Netherlands, India, Japan, Singapore all provided medical assistance. The same happened in the case of Mitch hurricane in 1998 and the earthquakes in Algeria and Iran in 2003. Other considerable military help comes from thee area of human resources, in terms of personnel skilled in needs assessments, different coordination functions and civil-military liaison. There is a rich literature emphasizing the importance of military forces that are increasingly called upon to carry out missions on behalf of the international community (Phillips, 1997; Griffith, 1996; Brehm and Gray, 1992; Gordenker and Weiss, 1991). Assigning humanitarian activities to military forces in certain emergency situations abroad is therefore considered a viable, desirable, option (Robinson, 2004). However, there are some opinions (Dynes, 1974; Yarrow, 1999;) which state different arguing that soldiers are not trained for humanitarian operations and their participation can be counterproductive in these situations. Sadly, sometimes history confirms this, at an unimaginable scale and with disastrous consequences. In 1993, the United Nations designated Srebrenica as a safe area. In a strange way, it was protected by a small, improperly armed UN contingent, placed as a pawn sacrifice in order to prevent Bosnian Serb army attacks. In the summer of 1995, this safe heaven witnessed one of the most terrifying mass murders since Worlds War II; between 13 and 19 July 1995, 7,000 to 8,000 Bosnian Muslim men were systematically murdered in mass executions. The fundamental theme of the movie “A Cry from the Grave" is how, at the end of the 20th century, civilised Europe and the United Nations allowed for such a crime against humanity. What happened in Srebrenica, a bloodbath that the United Nations had described as genocide, was not a single large massacre of Muslims by Serbs, but rather a series of very bloody attacks and counterattacks over a three-year period, which reached a crescendo in 1995 (Balkans Report, 2011).Srebrenica’s “cry from the grave” is heard even today, a remainder of the European Union incapacity to react and of the total inefficiency of the United Nations, whose peacekeepers stood by while humans were slaughtered. The Srebrenica massacre became one of the most controversial and horrific tragedy in recent Europe’s history and the second largest failure that United Nations experienced, after the genocide in Rwanda. The United Nation officials never admit they had advance knowledge of a military attack on Srebrenica, one of the six UN-designated safe areas. Srebrenica is the Guernica of our time, and a story of the humanitarian wars being waged by the UN and NATO throughout the world. 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