Carbon Credit and Climate Change - Case Study Example

Carbon Credit and Climate Change Table of Contents I. Abstract ………………………………………………………………….. 3 II. Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 4 III. History of Fossil Fuels …………………………………………………… 5 a. Common Air Pollutants from Burning of Fossil Fuels ………… 5 a.1 Sulfur Dioxides ………………………………………….… 6 a.2 Nitrogen Oxides …………………………………………… 7 a.3 Carbon Monoxides ………………………………………... 8 a.4 Volatile Organic Compounds …………………………….. 9 IV. Air Pollution in Report in the United States ………………………………. 10 V. Adverse Effects of Carbon, Nitrogen and Sulfur Oxides in the Environment ………………………………………………………. 11 VI. Alternative Sources of Energy …………………………………………….. 13 a. Nuclear Energy …………………………………………………… 13 b. Hydrocarbon Fuel …..…………………………………………….. 14 VII. Comparison Between Fossil Fuel, Nuclear Energy, and Hydrocarbon Fuel . 16 VIII. Universal Effort in Climate Change Prevention …………………………… 16 a. Kyoto Agreement …………………………………………………... 16 b. The Purpose of Carbon Trading ………………………………….. 17 IX. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………. 18 References …………………………………………………………………………. 19 - 23 Abstract Human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels in manufacturing companies and in major power plants including the use of road vehicles badly affect the quality of our environment globally. Specifically the atmosphere is gradually degrading because of the continuous daily emissions of sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide/dioxide and nitrogen oxide in the air. Specifically the high content of carbon in the atmosphere could result to climate change in the long-run. In line with this matter, it is necessary for us to adapt some alternative sources of energy so that we could lessen the emission of these harmful substances. The chemical changes as well as the pros and cons behind the use of each alternative energy sources such as the nuclear energy and hydrocarbon fuel will be highlighted as we determine the best solution to combat the climate change. Introduction Our atmosphere traps the heat coming from the energy of the sun. The greenhouse effect maintains the average surface temperature of 60oF (15oC) Earth. (The Knauer Group, 1997a) In the absence of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, it is possible that the Earth’s temperature will reach 0oF (-18oC). A temperature this low is too cold for most of the living things to survive. The greenhouse effect is caused by the greenhouse gases that traps the sun’s heat within the atmosphere. These gases can either be natural which comes from certain trees while the rest are caused by human activities. Among the greenhouse gases include: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (NO). The composition of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide. (The Knauer Group, 1997b) The primary source of manmade greenhouse gas emissions comes from the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. A small fraction of which is caused by farming and other agricultural activities. The burning of fossil fuels are mostly used to power generators, factories, and road transportation. Deforestation, coal mining, fire, air-conditioning units also contributors of manmade greenhouse gas. (The Knauer Group, 1997b) Too much of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause the temperature to increase. This could result to global warming causing disastrous effects such as hurricanes, drought, El Niňo, tropical storms, and other extreme changes in the climate. The high temperature melts the polar ice causing the sea level to increase. For this reason, it is possible for an island to disappear under water. Based on a news story, the glacier of Boulder Glacier in Glacier National Park in Montana is gone as of July 1998. (Understanding Evolution, 2006) Since there is no more glacier in the area, it is possible that some of the polar bears will be forced into cannibalism because of the habitat of the seals have already vanished. (Understanding Evolution, 2006) History of Fossil Fuels Coal, oil, and gas are under the classification of fossil fuels. (EIA, 2006) These fuels are formed over millions of years through the decay, burial and compaction of the rotten land vegetation under the ground – production of coal; and marine organisms under the sea floor – produces oil and natural gas. (U.S. DOE, 2005) The first form of fossil fuel that has been exploited during the 19th century when the Industrial Revolution started is coal. (Hemberger, n.d.) It was primarily used in industrial boilers to create steam energy to power machineries. Today, many countries are still burning coal in conventional power stations to produce electricity. This is because of the highly concentrated energy source that is present in coal. After the World War II, the use of oil gradually increases. In early 1970s, almost 40% of energy sources come from oil. During the 1990s, there many people started to shift from oil consumption to other sources of fuel such as natural gas and nuclear energy. (Schulz, n.d.) Road vehicles are among the biggest sector that burns refined from oil such as petrol or diesel. Since the mid-1960s up to the 20th century, a dramatic increase in the amount of natural gas reserves was found. The increase in the supply of the natural gas makes it as one of the fastest growing sources of energy today. In 2005, the United States is using 25% of natural gas for energy consumption. (Schulz, n.d.) Natural gas is considered as a good alternative to the use of oil and coal as source of energy. Because of the lesser pollution it emits to the air, it is classified as a ‘cleaner fuel.’ Common Air Pollutants from Burning of Fossil Fuels Burning is a chemical reaction of the fuel molecules with the oxygen molecules in the air. The burning of fuels results to the movement of electrons causing energy. (Settle, 2005) In line with the process, energy is produced while some of the chemical content is loss in the atmosphere. Thus, releasing a large amount of typical urban air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as hydrocarbons. (Natural Gas, 2004) The air pollutants that are released to the atmosphere contribute a lot in degrading the quality of the air and promote changes in our climate. Fossil fuel burning is estimated to contribute more than 90% of the gross domestic greenhouse gas emissions. (US EPA, 2000) Among the common sources of these primary air pollutants that release sulfur dioxides in the atmosphere are: industrial plants and power stations. (SHSU, 2007) Specifically, the use of coal releases more sulfur dioxide than the burning of oil and gas. Road vehicles and other sources of transportation create enormous amount of carbon monoxide, particulate matter and nitrogen oxides. On the other hand, the common indoor air pollutants include carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide from faulty gas heaters and cookers. Cigarette smoking also contributes to the significant amount of carbon monoxide and benzene. Sulfur Dioxides Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless, nonflammable gas with strong odor. It often reacts with the surface of airborne solid particles. Sulfur dioxides are water-soluble and could easily be oxidized within the airborne water droplets. (SHSU, 2007) Once the fossil fuels are burned, the sulfur impurity in coal and oil reacts with oxygen in the air to form sulfur dioxide. The molecules of sulfur dioxides could subsequently react with additional oxygen molecules to form sulfur trioxides. (See Chemical Equation of Sulfur Oxide below) S + O2  SO2 2 SO2 + O2  2 SO3 Among the common sources of sulfur dioxide are the combustion of fossil fuels, smelting, conversion of wood pulp to paper, and the manufacturers of sulfuric acid among others. (SHSU, 2007) Coal burning alone contributes to as much as 50% of the annual global emissions. Burning of oil accounts to a further 25 – 30% of the sulfur dioxide that are present in the atmosphere. Natural source of the sulfur dioxide are release by volcanoes. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the quality of ambient air standards for the sulfur dioxide throughout the area should have a maximum annual arithmetic mean concentration not exceeding 80 micrograms per cubic meter (0.03 parts per million by volume). The maximum allowable 24-hour concentration should not exceed 365 micrograms per cubic meter (0.14 parts per million by volume). These standards should be adequate enough to protect the health public safety. (U.S. EPA, 2006a) Nitrogen Oxides Nitrogen oxide (NO) is an odorless, colorless gas that is normally produced when burning fuels at high temperature. (SHSU, 2007) As soon as nitrogen (N2) mixes with the air, it quickly combines with the oxygen (O2) to form nitrogen oxides (NO). Most of the nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the atmosphere is formed from the oxidation of the nitric oxide (NO). In some cases, nitric oxide is released directly from the source to the atmosphere such as in the case of tobacco smoking. (See Chemical Equation of Nitrogen Oxide below) N2 + O2  2 NO 2 NO + O2  2 NO2 Nitrogen dioxide is a strong oxidizing agent that reacts in the air in order to form a corrosive nitric acid and toxic organic nitrates. In fact, it plays a major role in the atmospheric reaction that produces a ground-level brown smog or ozone. (Uddin, 2001) Since the nitrogen dioxide is classified as traffic-related pollutants, the emissions of these gases are generally at a high level in urban areas than in rural places. U.S. EPA has implemented a two-phased strategy to cut down the emissions of nitrogen dioxide from the coal-fired power plants down by 400,000 tons annually between the years 1996 to 1999; and 2 million tons annually starting in the year 2000. Emissions standards have been set for motor vehicles too. (U.S. EPA, 2007a) According to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), the quality of primary and secondary ambient air standards for the nitrogen dioxide throughout the area should have a maximum annual arithmetic mean concentration not exceeding 100 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3) or 0.053 parts per million by volume (ppm). (New Jersey DoE, 2005) Carbon Monoxides Carbon monoxide (CO) is also a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas produced when burning fuels that contains carbon with too little oxygen. (SHSU, 2007) It usually forms as a result of burning fuels at a high temperature. When the oxygen supply is adequate most of the carbon monoxide produced during the process of combustion is immediately oxidized to form carbon dioxide (CO2). (See Chemical Equation of Carbon Dioxide below) 2 CO + O2  2 CO2 In the case of spark ignition engines in motorcars, the oxygen supply during the combustion is inadequate. For this reason, the major source of atmospheric carbon monoxide is the road vehicles. A small contribution of these carbon monoxides comes from the process that involves the combustion of organic matter in power stations and waster incineration. The range of carbon monoxides (CO) concentration should be 40,000 micrograms per meter cubed or 9 parts per billion (ppb) for 8 hours and 35 ppm for 1 hour. (U.S. EPA, 2007b) This level can be as high as 500 ppm, depending on the weather conditions and traffic density. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are colorless, odorless and tasteless organic chemicals that could easily vaporize at room temperature. (SHSU, 2007) These are called as organic because it contains the element carbon in its molecular structure. VOCs include a wide range of organic compounds such as hydrocarbons, halocarbons and oxygenates. Hydrocarbon VOCs have two groups: methane and other non-methane VOCs. Methane (CH4) contributes to a major environmental impact on global warming. (U.S. EPA, 2007c) It is also a factor that aids in the production of ground level or lower atmosphere ozone. (NOAA Research, 2006) It is possible that a large amount of these methane are released to the atmosphere through some leakage of the natural gas from it distribution system. On the other hand, non-methane hydrocarbon such as Benzene, is stable but is highly volatile and could readily evaporate at a room temperature. Benzene concentrations are highest along the urban areas close to the main roads since 80% of the man-made emissions come from petrol-fuelled vehicles. (Borysiewicz and Kozubal, n.d.) Through an atmospheric chemical reactions, oxygenates arise when vehicles exhausts these gasses. Tropospheric ozone – an air pollutant and a greenhouse gas is formed when the VOCs are mixed with nitrogen oxides. (Jacob and Wofsy, 1988) Biogenically-emitted VOCs such as isoprene (C5H8) is capable of influencing the global climate. Isoprene is a non-methane-hydrocarbon compound (Evans et al., 1982) that is commonly emitted by oak, sweetgum, eucalyptus, and aspen. (Funk et al., 2003: 269 - 278) In many cases, the isoprene is oxidized by the hydroxyl radical (OH) that reduces the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere. The emission of isoprene is very sensitive to temperature. (Singasaas & Sharkey, 2000) For this reason, it is possible to associate any future climate change with the increase in isoprene production in the air. (Guenther, 2002) Hydroxyl radical (OH) destroys the isoprene during oxidation process. The remainder called the organic peroxy radical (RO2) reacts with the ozone where it is destroyed. (Fuentes et al., 2000) (See chemical equation of isoprene oxidation below) O2 C5H8 + OH  RO2 The oxidation of the isoprene by the OH has three ramifications on the chemistry of the troposphere. First, the atmosphere’s oxidative capacity is reduced. (Fehsenfield et al., 1992) Second, ozone is formed. (Chameides et al., 1992) Lastly, the product of isoprene oxidation (RO2) reacts with nitrogen oxide (NO) to form peroxy radicals, oxygenated hydrocarbons, organic peroxides, organic acids and organic nitrates. (Jacob and Wofsy, 1988) Specifically the oxidation of isoprene by the OH could lead to the destruction of the ozone layer. (Jacob and Wofsy, 1988) Therefore, it contributes to the climate change that we are currently experiencing globally. The annual and 24-hour standards set by the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for VOCs and/or particulate matter is diameter less than or equal to a nominal 2.5 micrometers. (U.S. EPA, 2001) These small particles are measured with the use of a Federal reference method (FRM). Air Pollution Report in the United States In 2006, the average concentration of sulfur dioxide in the United States is below the level of air quality standard. However, the annual levels in some sites remain above one or more than the national air quality standard. (U.S. EPA, 2006b) (See Figure I – Air Quality Forecast in the United States on page 11) Figure I – Air Quality Forecast in the United States Source: Air Now – A Cross-Agency of U.S. Government Website, 2007 In line with the adverse effects of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur oxides including the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the environment, it is necessary that we continuously improve the quality of air in order to prevent possible climate change in the future. Finding alternative sources of energy that produces less emission of carbon and minimizing the emission of these gases is important in preserving the current global atmospheric environment. Adverse Effects of Carbon, Nitrogen and Sulfur Oxides in the Environment The problem related to the formation of the carbon, nitrogen and sulfur oxides is the acid rain formation. Each time we burn fossil fuels, chemicals like nitrogen and sulfur are released into the air. These chemicals can become acidic as soon as it mixes with water. (See Chemical Equation of Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxides when mixed with water below) CO2 + H2O  H2CO3 (Carbonic Acid) 4 NO2 + O2 + 2 H2O  4 HNO3 (Nitric Acid) SO2 + H2O  H2SO3 (Sulfurous Acid) SO3 + H2O  H2SO4 (Sulfuric Acid) Air pollution can be carried over a long distance. When acid causing gases are released in the air, it immediately goes up in the sky wherein strong winds would push it towards other countries. Specifically the acid rain in Sweden was caused by the air pollution in Britain and other European countries. (Harper, 2003) There are some instances wherein the air pollution produced by Britain ends up in Scandinavia and other countries in the Northern Europe including Sweden, Norway and Denmark. In the United States, the wind blows the air pollution to certain areas in Canada. (Harper, 2003) Acid rain is capable of creating harmful effects to the environment. It could take away the important minerals from trees, plants and soil. (Smith et al., 2002) Without these minerals, trees and plants cannot grow properly. Trees and plants could lose their leaves and become very weak. Eventually, the forest would die and disappear. Trees and plants play an important role in absorbing the carbon dioxides from the atmosphere through ‘photosynthesis’. (Bartlett et al., 2006) In general, trees are capable of using carbon dioxides to produce their own energy as it releases oxygen along the process. In line with the process of photosynthesis, trees and plants are able to control the global climate change caused by the greenhouse effect of these gases. (Bartlett et al., 2006) In the absence of plants and trees in the forest, climate change such as the increase in the frequency and strength of extreme weather events such as droughts, El Niňos, cyclones, heat waves, floods and king tides would be unavoidable. (CIDA, 2007) Acid rain could also contribute to serious damages to the marine life, deterioration of our health including physical structures such as buildings and houses. Alternative Sources of Energy In line with controlling the climate change or global warming, it is necessary to develop and promote the use of alternative sources of energy. It is important that these renewable energy sources do not produce as many greenhouse gases and other air pollutants that could result to climate change. In line with the current renewable energy sources that we have today includes the use of nuclear power plants, hydrocarbon fuel, and other renewable energy sources like the traditional use of wind, water, and solar energy. (Schulz, n.d.) Nuclear Energy Today, the use of nuclear reactors has been gradually increasing as an alternative source of electricity. Some major countries have been expanding the consumption of nuclear energy despite the public opinion of its safety and waste disposal issues. Specifically the element uranium with an atomic number of 92 can be collected through mining all over the world. A nuclear fission occurs when several neutrons are fired at the Uranium. (Settle, 2005) In line with the nuclear fission, a mixture of atomic nuclei of other elements with lower molecular weight and neutrons is evident. It means that the mass of the fission products became less than the mass of the uranium. Based on Einstein’s proposal that mass and energy is interconvertable, the loss of mass in the fission products has resulted in the production of energy. (See Chemical Equation of Nuclear Fission below) 235 U 92 + 1 n 0  Fission Products + (about 2.5) 1 n 0 + Energy Nuclear energy is composed of particles of matter which consists of a small, dense nucleus that are surrounded by lighter, charged particles or waves called the electrons. (Settle, 2005) Nuclear energy produces energy in a way that matter is conserved. It means that there is no loss or gain in the mass of the chemical. For this reason, it has been argued that the use of this source of energy does not contribute to the detriment of our environment and does not affect the climate change. On the contrary, there has been some reports in the past regarding the casualties due to direct effects from the blast, radioactivity, and fires that has resulted from the use of nuclear weapons. In line with this matter, it is possible that there is an indirect effect on a severe collapse of the society and serious climatic consequences. (Robock et al., 2006) According to Toon et al. (2006), the direct effects of a relatively small number of nuclear explosions could be a disaster for the region where the nuclear energy is used. (Toon et al., 2006) It is important to take into consideration the smoke that was produced from fires with the use of a 50 Hiroshima-size (15kt) nuclear weapons in the past. Based on the Toon et al. (2006) analysis, a similar situation could generate as much as 1 – 5 Tg of black carbon aerosol particles that would be injected into the upper troposphere after the initial removal in black rain. (Toon et al., 2006) The result of the climate model simulation study proves that the aerosol moves near the top of the stratosphere when the aerosol layer is heated by the absorption of a short-wave radiation. (Robock et al., 2006) The aerosols are likely to stay in the stratosphere for a long time and continue to affect the surface climate for more than a decade. Oman et al. (2006) added that the mass e-folding time for the smoke to subside is at least 6 years as compared to 1-year due to volcanic eruptions; and 1 week for the use of aerosols. (Oman et al., 2006) Hydrocarbon Fuel Recently, new innovation has been pursued by the Loker Institute wherein they applied a reverse process to produce hydrocarbons out of carbon dioxide and water via methyl alcohol. (Olah, 1999) Through the use of electrolysis, hydrogen gas could be split from the water (H2O). In line with this new discovery, it is possible to convert the carbon dioxide (CO2) into methanol. (Olah, 1999) Also, hydrogen can be used to recycle the CO2 that has been emitted by some concentrated sources like road transportation, etc. into methyl alcohol to derive some fuels. So far, the recycling of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is currently under development. Once this new technology is fully implemented, it could help us produce useful fuels and other hydrocarbon related products. Also, it could contribute in lowering the CO2 level in the atmosphere and water to prevent climate change. (See Figure II – Schematic Diagram of a Liquid-Feed Direct Methanol Fuel Cell below) Figure II – Schematic Diagram of a Liquid-Feed Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Source: Dr. G.K. Surya, Prakash, 2007 Upon the completion of a combustion reaction, the hydrocarbon fuel produces only carbon dioxide and water when combined with oxygen. (See Chemical Equation of Hydrocarbon combustion below) In line with this new invention, the carbon intensity of hydrocarbon fuel is much lesser than the use of crude oil and coal. CH4 + 2 O2  CO2 + 2 H2O Comparison Between the Use of Fossil Fuel, Nuclear Energy and Hydrocarbon Fuel Both the consumption of fossil fuel and nuclear energy could contribute to the degradation of our natural resources and environment as well as the extreme changes in our climate. The only difference between the two is that the use of fossil fuels gives off harmful chemical substances during the combustion phase while the nuclear energy does not release any harmful substance in the atmosphere during fission. However, comparing the two sources of energy, it is possible that the use of the nuclear energy could result to a much greater damage to the environment and has the worst adverse effect on the climate change in case of mishandling. The use of fossil fuels is not a good choice because it is the main factor for the degradation of the atmosphere. On the other hand, the use of hydrocarbon fuel still releases some carbon dioxide in the air. Unless the recycling of carbon dioxide is perfectly developed, this option would still not be the best choice. Universal Effort in Climate Change Prevention About Kyoto Agreement The Kyoto Agreement is an international convention on climate change that sets a framework for the intergovernmental efforts to handle the challenges in relation to the climate change. (UNFCC, 2007) This pact is the first world international agreement to fight global warming. (White, 2007) It recognizes the shared climate system wherein its stability could be greatly affected by industrial activities as well as other emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. As part of the agreement, a total of 191 countries gather and share information with regards to the greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices. (UNFCC, 2007) Based on the gathered information, the authorities behind this convention would launch national strategies in order to address the greenhouse gas emission problems. The countries that signed for the ratification of the contract would then adopt these strategies. It is surprising that the United States accounts for 25% of the global greenhouse emissions all over the world. President Bill Clinton signed the agreement in 1997. However, the U.S. Senate refused to implement the agreement because of its potential damage and slow down to the U.S. economic growth. In 2001, President George Bush pulled the U.S. out of the Kyoto accords because of the high investment cost and opportunity loss attached to it. According to President Bush, “it is unrealistic and ever-tightening straitjacket.” (White, 2007) The White House added that millions of jobs will be lost in case the U.S. joins the Kyoto. (White, 2007) The Purpose of Carbon Trading Carbon trading is a system designed to offset the emitted carbon from human activity like driving road vehicles, burning of fossil fuels in manufacturing companies, or the use of airplanes among others with another activity such as installing a more efficient technology, planting of carbon reducing plants, etc. In the North America, the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) is the first and largest carbon trader market. (CCX, 2004) CCX members voluntarily and legally bind a commitment to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions. Phase I ended in December 2006 wherein all members were expected to have successfully reduced their direct emissions to 4% below the baseline period of 1998 – 2001. (CCX, 2004) The Phase II, extending up to 2010, will require its members to reduce the emission to below 6% of the baseline. (CCX, 2004) Conclusion Over the past few years, we have been experiencing serious climate change due to the high sulfur, carbon, and nitrogen dioxide as well as the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) content in the atmosphere. These gases trap the heat from the sun causing extreme changes in our global climate. The burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas contributes a lot on the greenhouse gas emission since the combustion of these fuels allow chemical substances to escape in the atmosphere. For this reason, it is necessary to develop other alternative sources of energy that will not contribute to the emission of the greenhouse gases. The use of nuclear energy does not directly contribute to the release of carbon particles in the atmosphere. However, this option is not the best choice because it could only worsen the current global environmental situation in case the use of this method would result to fire, explosion, etc. On the other hand, the use of hydrocarbon fuel is better than the nuclear energy but it still produces some carbon dioxide which could still cause harmful effects to the environment. This may also contribute to the climate change unless the development with regards to the recycling of the carbon dioxide will become perfect. No matter which angle we look at the situation, I believe that it is still best to use the renewable sources of energy such as thermal, kinetic, hydroelectricity, and solar energy because these energy sources produce zero carbon emission and other greenhouse gases. Strengthening the control and implementation of the Kyoto Agreement would create a big difference in combating the climate change. The existence of carbon trading in Chicago and other countries proves that it is possible to convince and gather the local citizens by voluntarily contributing their effort to protect our people from the consequences of climate change. *** End *** References: 1 Bartlett et al. (2006) ‘Listening to the Earth: An Environmental Audit for Benedictine Communities’ Retrieved: May 19, 2007 < http://www.arcworld.org/ > 2 BBC News (2004) ‘Greenhouse Effect’ Retrieved: May 25, 2007 < http://news.bbc.co.uk/ > 3 Borysiewicz, M.J. and Kozubal, G.A. (n.d.) ‘Air Quality Modeling’ Retrieved: May 19, 2007 < http://manhaz.cyf.gov.pl/ > 4 CCX (2004) ‘About CCX’ Retrieved: May 20, 2007 < http://chicagoclimatex.com/ > 5 Chameides et al. 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(2001) ‘Air Quality Project: Remote Sensing Laser Measurement of Air Pollution’ Center for Advanced Infrastructure Technology. University of Mississippi. August 2001. Retrieved: May 19, 2007 < http://www.ncrste.msstate.edu/ > 41 White, D. (2007) ‘U.S. Refusal to Sign Pact to Stem Global Warming’ Retrieved: May 20, 2007 < http://usliberals.about.com/ > Read More