Ecological Disaster of Brukunga Mine - Lab Report Example

 Table of Contents I. Abstract ………………………………………………………… 3 II. Introduction …………………………………………………….. 4 III. Materials and Method ………………………………………….. 5 a. Measure the pH Level …………………………………. 5 b. Measure the Oxygen Content of Water – Dissolved Oxygen ………………………………………. 5 c. Measure the Iron (Fe) and Sulfur Content of Water Samples …………………………………………. 7 IV. Results ………………………………………………………….. 8 a. pH Level ……………………………………………….. 8 b. Oxygen Content of Water – Dissolved Oxygen (O2) …. 8 c. Conductivity of Water Samples ………………………… 8 d. Iron (Fe) and Sulfur Content in Water Samples …….. 8 V. Discussion ……………………………………………………… 9 a. Comparison of Measurements with the Accepted Values and the Works of Other Authors …… 9 a.1 pH Level ………………………………………... 9 a.2 Oxygen Content of Water – Dissolved Oxygen (O2) …………………………………….. 11 a.3 Conductivity of Water Samples ………………… 13 a.4 Iron (Fe) and Sulfur Content in Water Samples ………………………………….. 14 VI. Conclusion …………………………………………………….… 17 Appendix I – pH Scale Paper ……………………………………………. 18 References ……………………………………………………………….. 19 - 20 Abstract There are a lot of factors that contribute to the quality of our waters. Human activities are one of the major causes of water detriments. Over time, water pollution has become a worldwide problem as it could lead to serious morbidity and mortality. In line with this issue, it is necessary that we constantly and closely monitor our water supply. This is one way to keep track of the degree of degradation we are causing to our marine environment. This study will show that different water sources within the area of Brukunga show different pH level, oxygen content in water, conductivity, as well as iron and sulfur content. Based on these results, the water that comes from the AMD Dam has the worst water quality of the area. Introduction Industrialization and other forms of human activities are adversely affecting bodies of water such as lakes, rivers, oceans and groundwater. Constantly increasing human population triggers the excessive content of chemicals in our water system (Pimentel et al., 1998). Among the common water pollutants that contribute to the degradation of our water supply are: heavy metals, organic toxins, oils, nutrients, and other solid wastes. Pollutants in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals and other harmful substances (Muskie, 1978). Many times, these chemical substances are toxic and could result in health risks. For many years, water pollution has been considered a major global problem because it could lead to worldwide death and disease. The Brukunga mine site, located at Brukunga in South Australia, worked to recover iron sulphide between the years 1955 to 1972 (Government of South Australia, 2007). Collected sulfur was used in the production of sulfuric acid and super phosphate fertilizer needed to sustain the increased expansion of the agricultural industry during the Cold War period. In line with excavating the mines, a portion of the sulphur content going into the bodies of water was inevitable. Specifically, the constant farming activities of the local people in the area contributed to the high content of iron and sulfur in the waters. In line with this matter, it is important to determine the amount of Iron (Fe) and Sulfur (S) present in the waters of Brukunga rivers. According to Mansfeldt and Dohrmann (2001), iron in rivers could form an iron-cyanide complex. Cyanides are readily formed within the environment. However, these cyanides are toxic to humans and other living organisms at very low concentration (CMC, 2007). On the other hand, high content of Sulfur in waters could increase the uptake of Mercury (Hg) in fish (Raynal et al., 2004). Also, Sulfur can form into Sulfur Dioxide. This compound, when mixed with Nitrogen Oxides could form acid rain. Acid rain is another serious problem because it causes fish and plants to die in our waters. In the end, this research study will conclude whether the water in Brukunga rivers is safe for human consumption or not. Materials and Method Measure the pH Level of Water Samples To measure the pH level of the water samples, a pH Scale strip with a distinctive color for each pH unit can be used (Wallingford, 2004). The pH test paper is soaked in the water sample. After a few seconds, the color of the strip will change according to the pH level of the liquid sample being tested. The pH level is read such that pH 7 is neutral. The levels of pH between the values 0 to 6 are considered acidic whereas levels 8 to 14 are alkaline. The most acidic is pH 0 and the most alkaline is at pH 14 (See Appendix I – pH Scale Strip on page 14). Measure the Oxygen Content of Water – Dissolved Oxygen Materials Needed: Van Dorn bottle 300 ml Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) bottle Pipette Reagents (alkaline-iodide-azide; manganese sulfate) Erlenmeyer flask Burette ‘Winkler Tiration’ can be used in measuring the amount of dissolved oxygen (Feruya and Harada, 1995). To get a water sample from the river or lake, make sure that the sample is not contaminated with atmospheric oxygen. Use a Van Dorn bottle to collect the water and make sure that the bottle is enclosed without trapping any air inside the bottle. Upon reaching the laboratory room, the sample should be transferred in a special bottle called Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). A hose will be used to transfer the water sample into the BOD bottle. To avoid air inside the bottle, the hose should be pushed entirely to the bottom of the bottle. After transferring the sample into BOD bottle, add 2 ml of manganese sulfate reagent, followed by a 2 ml of alkaline-iodide-azide reagent. Then, place the stopper in the BOD bottle to avoid air bubbles. Invert the bottle at least 15 times to mix the reagents. After the precipitate has settled, invert the bottle again for 15 times. Once the precipitate has settled at the bottom, carefully remove the stopper and add 2 ml of sulfuric acid reagent just beneath the surface by holding the pipette against the side of the bottle. Place back the stopper and invert the bottle again until all the precipitate has dissolved. As soon as a clear, yellowish-brown color appears, we could conclude that it is the presence of free iodide that has been liberated from the oxygen found in the sample water. Therefore, the oxygen can now be determined through titration with sodium thiosulfate. Then, use 100 ml of sample for titration – by transferring the sample to an Erlenmeyer flask and place it over a white background. Record the level of the thiosulfate titrant in the burette and titrate sample until a pale ‘straw’ yellow color is achieved. Then, slowly add 0.5 ml of starch solution and continue the titration until the blue color disappears. The blue coloration will return after 15 – 20 seconds due to the catalytic effect of nitrite or to traces of uncomplexed ferric salts. Carefully ignore the new level of titrant in the burette and record the number of ml used. Note: Pipettes with reagent will be used in adding the reagent into the sample water. In doing so, it is important to avoid entailing some bubbles into the water. Also, pipettes with different reagents should not be allowed to touch each other to avoid possible reactions. Measure the Iron (Fe) and Sulfur Content of Water Samples Materials Needed: HACH test kit test tubes test tube rack testing machine distilled water sachets of reactant sample waters taken from the rivers Measuring the Samples: The first step is to measure the undiluted sample (water from AMD Site 1) using the testing machine. Mix the water sample and a sachet of reactants. Measure the concentration of the mixture using the testing machine. If the meter flashes, it means that the sample is highly concentrated. In this case, it is necessary to dilute the samples taken from the river waters in order to avoid a high concentration of iron and sulfur. At this point, dilute the 5mL water sample with 45mL distilled water and label it as ‘1:10 (A).’ Be sure to shake the test tube using a test tube stopper. Once the sample has been diluted, use the testing machine to measure the sample. Again, mix the water sample labeled ‘1:10 (A)’ and a sachet of reactants. Measure the concentration of the mixture using the testing machine. If the meter flashes again, it means that the sample needs to be diluted further. In this case, dilute it again using the same procedure and label it as ‘1:100 (B).’ Repeat the same procedure until the meter no longer flashes. Follow the same process using the water samples coming from AMD Dam Leed; Change Over Tunnel; Top Weir North; Bottom pond; Bottom Weir Diversion; and Top Weir pond. Make sure to record the reading of each sample. To get the final concentration reading, multiply the value with the corresponding dilution factor. Note: When measuring the samples, it is important to get the exact volume of the required liquids. Using a slight difference in the measurement, either higher or lower than the specified amount of solution, could lead to less accurate findings and conclusions. Results pH Level Based on the pH strip, the pH level of Top Weir North, Bottom Weir Diversion, Changeover Channel Diversion, Top Weir Pond, Bottom Weir Pond, and AMD Dam waters are 8.82, 6.66, 3.83, 3.82, 2.87, and 2.75 respectively. Oxygen Content of Water – Dissolved Oxygen (O2) Top Weir North has the highest content of oxygen with 24.9 mg/L. The waters of Bottom Weir Diversion, Changeover Channel Diversion, Bottom Weir Pond, Top Weir Pond, and AMD Dam have oxygen content of 9.37, 8.56, 8.17, 6.38, and 1.0 mg/L respectively. Conductivity of Water Samples The water of AMD Dam have the highest conductivity of 7.3 mS/cm; followed by Top Weir Pond, Bottom Weir Pond, Changeover Channel Diversion, Bottom Weir Diversion, and Top North Weir with 6.4, 4.7, 4.0, 3.5, and 2.8 mS/cm respectively. Iron (Fe) and Sulfur Content in Water Samples The water of AMD Dam, Bottom Weir Diversion, Top Weir Pond, Bottom Weir Pond, Changeover Channel Diversion, and Top Weir North have iron (Fe) content of 2,870, 1,779, 310, 154, 29.45, and 5.61 mg/L respectively. On the other hand, the water of Top Weir Pond, AMD Dam, Bottom Weir Pond, Changeover Channel Diversion, Bottom Weir Diversion, and Top Weir North have sulfur (S) content of as much as 19,500; 18,500; 6,100; 4,350; 3,750; and 15 mg/L respectively. Table I – Summarized Table of Class Results 2007 - Site Description pH Dissolved O2 (mg/L) Conductivity (mS/cm) Sulfate Concentration (mg/L) Iron Concentration (mg/L) 1 2 Mean 1 2 3 Mean AMD Dam 2.75 1.0 7.3 19000 18000 18500 2195 3440 2974 2870 Top Weir North 8.82 24.9 2.8 20 10 15 7.25 8.06 1.53 5.61 Top Weir Pond 3.82 6.38 6.4 12000 27000 19500 381 288 262 310 Changeover Channel Diversion 3.83 8.56 4.0 5000 3700 4350 16.9 19.5 51.96 29.45 Bottom Weir Pond 2.87 8.17 4.7 5000 7200 6100 169 160 134 154 Bottom Weir Diversion 6.66 9.37 3.5 3700 3800 3750 1.651 1.873 1.812 1.779 Dawesley Creek off Brukunga Site No water present – No Data to collect Discussion Comparison of Measurements with the Accepted Values and the Works of other Authors pH Level Water is sufficiently buffered when the pH level is between pH 5.5 and pH 7.5 (Sharpe, 2007). Below pH 5.0 and above pH 8.0 are not good because too much acidity or alkalinity kills living organisms such as fish. Usually, high alkalinity of above 500 mg/L is associated with high pH values. Based on the group result, having a pH level of 2.75, the AMD Dam water is the most acidic, followed by the water in Bottom Weir Pond with pH 3.87; Changeover Channel Diversion with pH 3.83; and Top Weir North with pH 3.82. The only water with a safe pH level of 6.6 is the river found in Bottom Weir Diversion. The water in Top Weir North river with pH 8.82 has a high alkalinity (See Table I – Summarized Table of Class Result on page 9). In comparison with the previous years’ results, the water in AMD Dam and Bottom Weir Pond remain acidic while the water in Bottom Weir Diversion remains neutral. Last year, the water at Changeover Channel Diversion was neutral – with pH 6.26. This year, it became acidic (pH 3.83). The water at Top Weir North which used to be alkaline with pH 8.09 is now acidic with pH level reaching 3.82 (See Table II – pH Level of Sample Waters and Figure II – pH Level of Sample Waters below). The different results are possibly caused by the constant changes in the activities of human, fishes, plants, as well as environmental factors such as climate, acid rain, and temperature, which affects the pH level of water in lakes and rivers. These activities constantly change the oxygen, nitrogen, and other substances that are present in the bodies of water. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are no health-based guidelines for pH value proposed on drinking water. However, it is important to control the pH level of water treatment to ensure good water clarification and disinfection. Failure to do so could contaminate the drinking water and affect its taste, odour, and appearance (WHO, 2003). Based on the Australian guidelines for drinking water and domestic use, the pH level of water should be between pH 6.5 – 8.5 (Aus & NZ Env. & Cons. Council, 1992). Therefore, the only water that passes the Australian guidelines comes from the Bottom Weir Diversion with pH 6.6. Oxygen Content of Water – Dissolved Oxygen (O2) The oxygen content of pure water is usually within the range of 7 – 10 mg/L depending on the temperature and atmospheric pressure. Oxygen concentration of less than 16% is enough to cause blackouts, while high concentration of oxygen (above 40%) could cause the formation of toxic oxygen radicals that could damage the structure of a living cell and its function (Eflick, 2007). Thus, oxygen toxicity could lead to death. Based on the laboratory result, the oxygen content of water in AMD Dam, Top Weir Pond, and Top Weir North are 1.0, 6.38, and 24.9 mg/L. These values can cause harm to the underwater plants and marine life. On the other hand, Changeover Channel Diversion, Bottom Weir Pond, and Bottom Weir Diversion are within the acceptable range (See Table I – Summarized Table of Class Result on page 9). In comparison with the previous years’ results, the oxygen content of water in Changeover Channel Diversion remains the same. The oxygen content of water in Bottom Weir Diversion has increased slightly as compared with last year. There is a huge change in the water of Bottom Weir Division from 3.8 mg/L last year to 8.17 mg/L this year. The most drastic result can be seen in the dramatic increase of oxygen content in the water of Top Weir North from 8.2 to 24.9 mg/L this year. Similar reasons behind the constant changes in the pH level of the water can be seen as the main reason for the increase or decrease of oxygen content in the water. Table III - Dissolved Oxygen in the Water (2006 & 2007) Site Name mg/L 2007 2006 AMD Dam 1.00 1.73 Top Weir North 24.90 8.35 Top Weir Pond 6.38 0.00 Changeover Channel Diversion 8.56 8.57 Bottom Weir Pond 8.17 3.72 Bottom Weir Diversion 9.37 8.83 Dawsley Creek 0.00 0.00 According to the WHO, inadequate levels of dissolved oxygen in water could be related to water pollution, turbidity, scum or odour. Dissolved oxygen will not cause a direct effect on consumers. However it could influence the microbial activity and chemical oxidation state of metals like iron. There is no exact value provided in the guidelines of WHO or Australian guidelines (Aus & NZ Env. & Cons. Council, 1992). Conductivity of Water Samples Conductivity is measured to test the water capability of transmitting electric current (Eflick, 2007). Conductivity is expressed in ‘microsiemens per cm’ (mS/cm) (ETV Program, 2007). It is directly proportional to the concentration of dissolved salts in the water. A higher concentration of conductivity means a higher content of salt. Distilled water is considered a poor conductor of electricity because its conductivity ranges only between 0.00 to 0.75 mS/cm. A conductivity between 0.75 to 3.00 mS/cm means that the danger of salinity problems is progressively increasing. Over 3.0 mS/cm is generally unsafe to humans, marine life, and plants (Knoxfield, 1995). Based on the result, the water in the Top Weir North, with 2.8 mS/cm, is the only source that has a minimal danger for consumption. The rest of the water sources are not safe to use. The highest conductivity is found in AMD Dam with 7.3 mS/cm. In comparison with the previous years’ results, there is a very minimal change in the conductivity of the sources of the water, except for the Bottom Weir Pond, which increases from 3.6 to 4.7 mS/cm (See Table IV – Conductivity of Water Samples and Chart IV on page 14). Table IV - Conductivity of Water Samples (2006 & 2007) Site Name mS/cm 2007 2006 AMD Dam 7.30 7.50 Top Weir North 2.80 2.20 Top Weir Pond 6.40 0.00 Changeover Channel Diversion 4.00 3.50 Bottom Weir Pond 4.70 3.60 Bottom Weir Diversion 3.50 3.25 Dawsley Creek 0.00 0.00 The WHO did not set any values for conductivity of water. Based on Australian guidelines, drinking water should have conductivity of less than 0.8 mS/cm (Aus & NZ Env. & Cons. Council, 1992). The values of conductivity in the water samples are too high to be safe for drinking water. Iron (Fe) and Sulfur Content in Water Samples When dealing with the levels of Iron (Fe) that are expressed in mg/L, the acceptable range is between 0 – 0.3; 0.3 – 1.0 is satisfactory, however, it could cause staining and has different tastes. Iron content in water of more than 1.0 is unsatisfactory (Eflick, 2007). Based on the result, all water sources, except for Dawesley Creek off Brukunga Site, have iron content of more than 1.0 mg/L. It means that these waters can be harmful to humans and marine life. No data was gathered for Dawesley Creek off Brukunga Site due to the absence of water within the area. Specifically the water sample with the highest content of Iron (Fe) is found at the ‘AMD Dam’ with 2,870 mg/L. This figure is relatively too high for human consumption (See Table V – Iron Content of Water Samples and Chart V below). Table V - Iron Content of Water Samples (2006 & 2007) Site Name mg/L 2007 2006 AMD Dam 2870.00 - Top Weir North 5.61 - Top Weir Pond 310.00 - Changeover Channel Diversion 29.45 - Bottom Weir Pond 154.00 - Bottom Weir Diversion 1.78 - Dawsley Creek 0.00 - The WHO advises a limit of 0.3 mg/L of iron (Oxfam Humanitarian Department, 2003). The Australian guideline for iron content in drinking water is less than 0.3 mg/L (Aus & NZ Env. & Cons. Council, 1992). This means that all sources of water in the Brukunga area are high in iron content. On the other hand, ‘sulfates’ in river waters are caused by natural deposits of magnesium sulfate, calcium sulfate, or sodium sulfate. Sulfate concentration should be below the level of 250 ppm (Eflick, 2007). Concentration higher than the said level could cause laxative effects. These levels can be expressed in terms of milligram per liter, wherein 0 – 250 mg/L is acceptable; between 250 – 500 is tolerable; and 500 – 1000 is undesirable. Over 1000 mg/L is unsatisfactory. Based on the result, the only water that is safe from sulfur content comes from the Top Weir North, with only 15 mg/L. Other sources of sample water have relatively high content of sulfur. The worst concentration of sulfur content is located at the Top Weir Pond, with 19,500 mg/L of sulfur; followed by AMD Dam with 18,500 mg/L (See Table I – Summarized Table of Class Result on page 9). Table VI - Sulfate Content of Water Samples (2006 & 2007) Site Name mg/L 2007 2006 AMD Dam 18500.00 13000.00 Top Weir North 15.00 42.40 Top Weir Pond 19500.00 0.00 Changeover Channel Diversion 4350.00 2900.00 Bottom Weir Pond 6100.00 6750.00 Bottom Weir Diversion 3750.00 2350.00 Dawsley Creek 0.00 0.00 In comparison with the previous years’ results, all the sources of water samples increase their sulfur content as compared to the measurement that was taken last year except for Top Weir North, which decreased from 42.4 to 15 mg/L; and Bottom Weir Pond, from 6,750 to 6,100 mg/L this year. Based on WHO guidelines, there is no proposed health-based guideline value for sulfate in drinking water (WHO, 2004). Australian guidelines state that sulphate content should not be more than 400 mg/L (Aus & NZ Env. & Cons. Council, 1992). Conclusion There are a lot of internal and external factors that greatly affect the characteristics of water found in the rivers and lake of the Brukunga area. These factors include the presence of Brukunga mining between the years 1955 to 1972 as well as the constant use of fertilizers in agricultural activities. Many times, these factors contribute a lot to the changes that we have seen in our report. The characteristics of the water in Brukunga river such as the pH level of water, Oxygen Content of Water – Dissolved Oxygen (O2), Conductivity of Water Samples, and the amount of Iron (Fe) and Sulfur Content of water in the Brukunga area generally fail the guidelines that have been set by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Australian guidelines in relation to the safety of water for human consumption. Specifically the pH level of waters, Oxygen Content of Water – Dissolved Oxygen (O2), Conductivity of Water Samples, and Iron (Fe) and Sulfur Content in the bodies of water varies periodically. This is the main reason why it is important that we regularly check the water characteristics as a way to measure the degradation of our waters due to human activity. In order to prevent the adverse effects of water pollution to our health, it is necessary that all of us start to help clean the water system by lessening our daily contribution to water pollution. Through joint forces, we could still preserve the quality of our water supply for the future. *** End *** Appendix I – pH Scale Paper References: 1 Aus & NZ Env. & Cons. Council (1992) ‘Australian Water Quality for Fresh and Marine Waters’ Retrieved: May 13, 2007 < https://www.scupayments.com/ > 2 Eflick, J. (2007) ‘Topic 18: Environmental Chemistry’ Retrieved: May 10, 2007 < http://www.uq.edu.au/ > 3 ETV Program (2007) ‘ETV Joint Verification Statement: Measuring Water Quality’ Supported by US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Battelle – The Business of Innovation. Retrieved: May 10, 2007 < http://www.epa.gov/ > 4 Feruya, K. and Harada, K. (1995) ‘An Automated Precise Winkler Titration for Determining Dissolved Oxygen on Board Ship’ Journal of Oceanography. Vol.51, pp. 375 – 383. 5 Government of South Australia (2007) ‘The Brukunga Mine Site’ Retrieved: May 15, 2007 < http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/ > 6 Knoxfield, E.J. (1995) ‘Testing and Interpretation of Salinity and pH’ Department of Primary Industries’ March, 1995 Retrieved: May 10, 2007 < http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/ > 7 Mansfeldt, T. and Dohrmann, R. (2001) ‘Identification of a Crystalline Cyanide-Containing Compound in Blast Furnace Sludge Deposits’ Journal of Environmental Quality. 30:1927 – 1932. 8 Muskie, E. (1978) ‘The Meaning of the 1977 Clean Water Act’ EPA Journal. July-August 1978. 9 Oxfam Humanitarian Department (2003) ‘Oxfam Guidelines for Water Treatment in Emergencies’ Retrieved: May 13, 2007 < http://www.reliefweb.int/ > 10 Pimentel et al., (1998) ‘Ecology of Increasing Disease: Population Growth and Environmental Degradation’ Ecology of Increasing Disease. BioScience, Vol. 48, No. 10. October, 1998; pp. 817 – 826. 11 Raynal et al. (2004) ‘Effects of Atmospheric Deposition of Sulfur, Nitrogen, and Mercury on Adirondack Ecosystems’ NYSERDA Report 04-03. September 2004. 12 Sharpe, S. (2007) ‘Water pH’ Retrieved: May 10, 2007 < http://freshaquarium.about.com/ > 13 Wallingford, A. (2004) ‘The pH Scale & Standard Indicators’ The Science Tool Box. Last Updated: October 19, 2006 Retrieved: May 10, 2007 < http://www.sciencetoolbox.com/ > 14 WHO (2004) ‘Sulfate in Drinking-Water’ Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. Retrieved: May 13, 2007 < https://www.who.int/ > 15 WHO (2003) ‘pH in Drinking Water’ Background document for development of WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. Retrieved: May 13, 2007 < https://www.who.int/ > Read More