Challenges of Implementing Sustainable Solutions to the Global Freshwater Crisis - Case Study Example

CHALLENGES OF IMPLEMENTING SUSTAINABLE SOLUTIONS TO THE GLOBAL FRESHWATER CRISIS Introduction Earth is called the “Blue Planet” because 70% of the earth’s surface is covered with water. However, 97.5% of the water forms the oceans, while only 2.5% of the world’s water is fresh. Of this fresh water only 0.3% is available from rivers, lakes and reservoirs, 30% from the underground water table, while the rest is stored in distant glaciers, ice sheets and mountainous areas, which are mostly inaccessible for use. Freshwater is crucial for human beings and other living things on earth to survive, hence there is a vital need to protect the resource (IYF, 2003). “The key challenges of water management can only be understood within the context of water’s role in the world today” (WWDR 2, 2006: 1). Various factors play a part: the impact of extreme climates as witnessed in floods and drought conditions; many of the socio-economic systems in the world connecting at a rapidly growing rate; poverty, warfare, diseases such as Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) afflicting many of the world’s populations; and the prevalence of increasingly crowded urban conditions. The world’s water managers have to monitor equitably and with more refined techniques, the increasingly scarce freshwater resource. At the same time, they have to face the complexities and pressures of the rapidly changing conditions and deterioration of available resources. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the global water crisis, identify sustainable solutions, and explain the challenges faced in resolving world-wide water scarcity problems. Discussion In November, 2002, the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), created a milestone in the history of human rights by recognizing water as a fundamental human right. The one hundred and forty five countries which have approved the International CESCR will now be required to progressively ensure that there is access to safe and sufficient drinking water, without any form of discrimination among people (WWDR 1, 2003). The world’s socio-economic development including poverty alleviation, demographic and technological change, globalization, trade, warfare and security; as well as climate variability are each mutually interdependent with freshwater resources (UNESCO, 2006). The natural cycle of water around the earth is the hydrological cycle. All water on earth is constantly recycled, repurified, and reused. The three main impacts that humans have on the hydrological cycle are: withdrawing freshwater for domestic, industrial or agricultural purposes, polluting the water while using it, and returning the used water into the hydrological cycle for purification through further stages till it is again available for use (Wright & Nebel, 2005: 181). The hydrological cycle of water around the earth (UNEP 1, 2008) Liquid water from the earth’s surface, particularly the oceans, is evaporated into a gaseous form and enters the atmosphere as water vapour in the form of clouds. The atmospheric moisture is eventually returned to the earth’s surface in the form of rain or snow. It is estimated that around 100, 000 cubic kilometres of water, 20% of the total global annual precipitation, falls on the land surface of the continents. The fresh water moves over the surface on its journey back to the ocean, while creating rivers, lakes, wetlands and groundwater aquifers (UNEP 1, 2008). Urban and rural water supply and sanitation (UNEP 2, 2008) The above graphic compares global measurements against that of developing nations, in percentages, pertaining to the amount of water supply versus sanitation coverage. It shows statistics from 1990 and 2000, and compares water supply and water used for sanitation in both urban and rural settings (UNEP 2, 2008). Throughout the 20th century, global water use has increased in the agricultural, domestic and industrial sectors. Evaporation from reservoirs has increased at a slower rate. Projections indicate that both global water use and evaporation will continue to increase. The graphic below shows water consumption, withdrawal and waste, in cubic kilometres per year, for the agricultural, domestic and industrial sectors, and shows evaporation from reservoirs. The time period covered is 1900 to 2025: assessments and projections (UNEP 3, 2008). Trends and forecasts for agricultural, industrial, domestic water use and storage (UNEP 3. 2008) The Challenges of Water Governance The world’s water crisis is considered to be mainly one of governance. The chief obstacles to implementing sustainable water management techniques are: “sector fragmentation, poverty, corruption, stagnated budgets, declining development assistance, reduced investment in the water sector, inadequate institutions, and limited stakeholder participation” (UNESCO, 2006). Good water governance is a complex process, which is impacted by the standard of governance in other areas. Countries’ customs, politics, conditions, events within, around, and developments in the global economy, all have an integrated effect on water governance. The Global International Water Assessment Tools are efficient in monitoring the world’s water resources: (UNEP 4, 2008) Global International Waters Assessments (GIWA) assessment tools for monitoring the worlds water resources, incorporates five major environmental concerns, and application of the DPSIR framework (driving forces-pressure-state-impact-response). These tools are now formulating results of practical use for management decisions. The above graphic explains the GIWA Assessment Methodology and five main environmental concerns, which are: freshwater shortages; pollution; the unsustainable exploitation of fisheries and other living resources; habitat and community modification and global change (UNEP 4, 2008). Actually, insufficiency of freshwater is fuelled by an inefficient supply of services, rather than by water shortages. Often due to mismanagement, bureaucratic inertia, and a shortage of new investments in building human capacity and physical infrastructure, people lack access to essential services. Both water scarcity and increasing pollution are challenges that are induced socially and politically. These issues need to be addressed by making changes in water demand and use, and through increased awareness, education and water policy reforms. Reforming water governance is a slow process, while balancing the social, economic, political and environmental dimensions of water. The water crisis should be resolved by people, both as individuals and as groups, by actively implementing water conservation strategies (WWDR 2, 2006: 45). Water Conservation Strong conservation methods need to be applied, to ensure an adequate and continued supply of water. There can be great variations in stream flow, both in time and space: that is annually and regionally. Hence, even areas with high precipitation and runoff may periodically suffer from droughts (Botkin & Keller, 2005: 411). This results in significant ground water depletion. The graphic below illustrates groundwater flow, confined and unconfined aquifers, and three types of wells: artesian; flowing artesian and a water table well in an unconfined aquifer. It shows how groundwater is circulated through the aquifer and recharges it . Groundwater is one of the most important sources of drinking water for human consumption (UNEP 5, 2008). Groundwater: aquifers, wells and circulation (UNEP 5, 2008) Worlds surface water: precipitation, evaporation and runoff (UNEP 6, 2008) The worlds surface water is affected by different levels of precipitation, evaporation and runoff in different regions. The above graphic illustrates the different rates at which these processes affect the major regions of the world, and the resulting uneven distribution of freshwater. It shows the amount of precipitation in cubic kilometres for each region, and the percentage of that amount which evaporates or becomes runoff (UNEP 6, 2008). There are several ways in which freshwater supply in a particular area is increased: by building dams and reservoirs to store runoff, by transporting water from a source that is located elsewhere, withdrawing ground water, desalination or converting salt water to fresh water, wasting less water in sanitation, runoffs, evaporation, leaks from water transporting pipes, etc, and importing food which reduces the water used for agriculture and raising livestock. Dams and reservoirs are beneficial not only in the reduction of downstream flooding and provision of water for irrigating agricultural fields, but also in the production of cheap electricity. On the other hand, they also displace people and disrupt aquatic systems (Miller, 2007: 312-313). With the continued withdrawal of groundwater and depletion of the water table due to rapid population growth and urbanization, the surface of the ground decreases in level. This subsidence to an extent of several meters, and the formation of sinkholes due to the collapse of underground conduits or cavern roofs, can lead to a permanent loss of the aquifer because of compression of the rock particles in the aquifer. Further, “groundwater overdrafts in coastal areas can contaminate groundwater supplies by causing intrusion of salt water into freshwater aquifers used to supply water for irrigation and domestic purposes” (Miller, 2007: 320). Global freshwater resources: policy and planning In the past century, the main of water planners and managers was identifying and meeting growing human demands for water, with the construction of large facilities for storing, moving and treating water. With the realization of the environmental and social impacts caused by dams, the requirement for an integrated, moderate approach to resolve global water shortage was acknowledged. Reliance on centralized infrastructure needed to be supported with small-scale decentralized facilities. “The soft path for water strives to improve the productivity of water rather than seek endless sources of new supply” (Gleick, 2003: 1526). The methods used should ensure decreased technical as well as financial risks, should be appropriate for users’ needs, should apply economic tools such as markets and pricing, but with the goal of encouraging efficient use, distribution of the resource in a fair manner, with sustainable operations. Finally, it needs to include local communities in decisions about water management, allocation, and use. So long as the services produced are convenient, cost effective, and socially acceptable, society’s goal should be: improved social and individual well-being per unit of water used. Innovative and dry methods of waste disposal; changing irrigation technology or crop characteristics for increased production, are important factors. Flood irrigation method which uses much more water is only 60% efficient, as compared to drip irrigation which is 95% efficient. Further, “improved efficiency can result from furrow diking, land leveling, direct seeding, drip irrigation, changes in plant varieties, low-energy precision application sprinklers, and better information about the time and other details for irrigation” (Gleick, 2003: 1527). With increasing global population, and alteration of the hydrology of river basins by climate change, by 2050 over seven billion people in sixty countries will face water scarcity if urgent measures are not taken. Sustainable solutions to the problem include the development and application of relatively simple technologies. Also, existing technologies need to be refined to tackle the two largest causes of the global water crisis: contamination of drinking water supplies with human faeces, and massive wastage of water in agricultural practices (Editorial, 2003: 243). Ventilated Composting Sanitation Systems Disposal of waste by flushing with water is one of the “largest single drain on domestic water resources”. This water would need to be treated with sewage treatment infrastructure which would require substantial financial investment. Instead, ventilated, composting toilets have been developed, which can now safely turn human waste into an odourless, soil-like residue. This system is considered to be better than the flush system which involves the contamination and subsequent treatment of precious water supplies. To further reduce its cost, the technology for the ventilated composting system is required to be improved (Editorial, 2003: 243). Irrigation for Agriculture Due to the seepage of water from irrigation channels compounded by evaporation of water, over 60% of water diverted to fields is lost to agriculture. Irrigation can be made 90% efficient, with very little wastage, by using “micro-irrigation”, in which recycled waste water is fed to crops through sealed pipes (Editorial, 2003: 243). Underground water is increasingly being used by farmers for irrigation, causing serious depletion of the resource, which does not get replaced as quickly as do rivers by rainfall. As the underground aquifers dry up, they will concurrently impact the world’s ability to feed itself through agriculture. For this reason, rainwater harvesting is a useful strategy in urban as well as rural areas. The rainwater runoff from roofs and ground surface is channelized towards and through open, narrow percolation pits in the ground to recharge the aquifers (Pearce, 2006: 34). Urbanization with its paved ground surfaces, prevents the recharging of underground water tables by precipitation of water into the soil, and increases water runoff with pollutants on the land surface. Hence, during the development of urban areas, it is essential to introduce both drains for rain water runoff as well as percolation pits for efficient utilization of the resource (Wright & Nebel, 2005: 196). Desalination Plants Due to growing water scarcity, the cost of water increases with the implementation of stronger conservation measures. When the cost of water rises above a certain level, more expensive methods of obtaining water may be implemented, for example, pumping from deeper wells, or using desalination technology for removing salt from sea water or brackish water to render it fit for human consumption, agriculture or industrial processes. There are about 40 kilogrammes or 88 pounds of salt per cubic meter of sea water (Botkin & Keller, 2005: 414, 412). Desalination is costlier than water transfers or groundwater pumping. 60% of the world’s desalination plants are located in the wealthy but arid regions of the Middle East. Conclusion This paper has identified practical and sustainable solutions to the global water scarcity, and highlighted the challenges faced in resolving the water crisis. The main reasons for the crisis are attributed to poor governance, inadequate water policies and practices. Changing the methods of how water is used, rather than continually looking for more water resources, has been advocated. Along with reforms in water governance, an integrated approach to water management which includes implementing various sustainable solutions, have been outlined. Further, an important measure to resolve the global water crisis is for developed nations to financially help the poorest countries to tackle water-borne disease, and to develop sustainable solutions to the freshwater crisis. The United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals includes the “Water for Life” programme, in 2005-2015, known as the International Decade for Action. It aims to halve the number of people lacking access to safe drinking water by 2015, at a cost of tens of billions of dollars. For beneficial outcomes globally, world leaders need to pledge their commitment for providing necessary funds (United Nations, 2006). References Botkin, D.B. & Keller, E.A. 2005. 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