Water Crisis in Middle East - Essay Example

? Water crisis Middle East Water crisis Middle East Introduction The effective management of water resources is one of the most critical challenges that governments worldwide have to face. A series of laws has been developed for ensuring that the rights of each state in regard to its water resources are secured. Still, conflicts related to water management have not been avoided. Current paper presents the various aspects of water crisis in Middle East. Reference is made, as example, to the water management problems of Israel, Palestine, Syria and Jordan. The academic studies developed in this field reflect different perceptions for the criteria on which water management should be based. This phenomenon could be explained by the following fact: the high development of technology has affected ‘the perception of people on nature’ (Selby 2005, p.332). Therefore, the terms under which water available in a particular area is characterized as a ‘resource’ have been differentiated today, compared to the past (Selby 2005). In this context, the rights of a state on its water resources are difficult to be fully defined while the support provided by international organizations for such issues is often inadequate (Selby 2005). On the other hand, the water resources worldwide face a continuous shrinkage, mostly because of the pollution but also because of the increasing global population. In certain countries, such as those of Middle East, the problem is more intense. In fact, there are countries in the particular region that can be characterized as ‘water – poor countries, meaning that their water production, per capita, is below 1000 m3/yr’ (Hadadin et al. 2010, p.197). The research developed for this study has revealed that the water crisis in Middle East is quite difficult to be fully explored, due to the existence of several conflicting interests and the lack of sufficient information for such task. Still, the material available in regard to this study’s subject shows the key problems related to water management in Middle East; at the same time, the factors that most contribute in the continuation and the expansion of water crisis in the specific area are presented. In any case, it seems that water crisis in Middle East cannot be terminated without the willingness of the parties involved to back down from certain of their rights on their water resources. 2. Water crisis in Middle East 2.1 History The lack of adequate water resources is not a recent problem. In addition, there are certain regions where the specific problem is quite critical: Africa, South and East Asia and Middle East are the regions that are mostly characterized by water shortage; in certain areas of these regions water shortage can be extreme leading local populations to survival concerns (Kummu et al. 2010, p.4). The water crisis developed in the above regions is characterized by the following trend: water shortage in each of these regions has been developed in different rate. More specifically, up to 1900s water shortage was extreme in Africa while from 1960s and up today water shortage is expanded across South Asia and Middle East (Kummu et al. 2010, p.4). In other words, the appearance and the rate of development of water shortage cannot be foreseen in advance (Kummu et al. 2010). In countries of Middle East water shortage is a common problem. For example, in Jordan ‘the drying of streams has led to the lowering of water levels across the country’ (Hadadin et al. 2010, p.197). In the above country, water shortage first appeared about 1960s and has highly expanded since then (Hadadin et al. 2010, p.197). The two factors that have been considered as enhancing the country’s water shortage problem are the following: a) the extremely dry climate and b) the rapid economic development of the country supported the increase of population, which, in its turn, led to the increase of need for water (Hadadin et al. 2010, p.197). In a recent report, where the ability of countries to cover their needs for water through their own water resources was presented, emphasis has been given on the low performance of UAE in regard to the adequacy of their water resources. Indeed, in the specific report the ‘Water Stress Index - WSI’ (Dubai School of Government 2011, p.2) has been used as an indicator for showing ‘the imbalance between water demand and water availability’ (Dubai School of Government 2011, p.2). Through the research developed by relevant governmental organizations, UAE ‘ranks first, with a WSI of ??1.0’ (Dubai School of Government 2011, p.2). This means that UAE has one of the highest imbalances, in regard to water availability towards water demands. 2.2 Economics In order to understand the economic aspects of water crisis in Middle East it is necessary to identify the terms under which water is related to the economic life of a particular region. Water is a critical element of agriculture. The availability of water is a prerequisite for the development of a region’s productivity in terms of agriculture (Selby 2003). The chances of a region to achieve a high income from agricultural products are more when the amount of water available for irrigation is high (Selby 2003). In other words, water can be used for improving the financial status of a region but only through securing the consent of local people. In addition, the infrastructure used in water supply needs to be periodically checked and replaced, if necessary (Zyadin 2013). Such activity is related to costs that can be considerably high (Zyadin 2013). Forcing the governments to invest money on water supply networks gives to water an increased power, as an economic factor. From the same point of view, the costs involved in the development and maintenance of water infrastructure need to be taken into account by governments when developing their budgets (Zyadin 2013); for the countries of Middle East there can be no exception. Water has an additional economic aspect: in countries where water resources are scarce, the needs for importing water are increased (Rababa’a 2012). In these countries the costs involved in importing water for water supply and irrigation have to be carefully reviewed so that the funds required are located on time (Rababa’a 2012). Under certain terms, these costs can be quite high; governors can choose different approaches for facing this problem (Rababa’a 2012). When necessary, governors may choose to reduce the amount of water imported for covering the country’s irrigation needs when the funds available are not adequate for covering the costs related to water supply (Zyadin 2013, p.51). The above issue is of critical importance if taking into consideration the fact that the needs for water tend to be increased in countries where the rate of increase of population is high; in Middle East countries such trends have been reported the last decade. For example, the population of Abu Dhabi ‘has been increased with an annual rate of 6.5% since 1975’ (Dubai School of Government 2011, p.1). Also, in Jordan, a key member of Middle East, the needs for water supply are expected to be continuously increased for the rest 27 years, according to a recent study (Hadadin et al. 2010). The relevant trends are presented in Figure 1 below. It should be noted though that in Jordan the high percentage of water, about 75% is used in irrigation rather than in domestic consumption (Hadadin et al. 2010). Figure 1 – Jordan, water demand forecasts (source: Hadadin et al. 2010, p.200) In order to secure the availability of water for covering the increasing needs for water, governments in countries of Middle East have emphasized on the use of technology related to the desalination of water. The number of desalination plants that are currently established in UAE is estimated to 70 (Dubai School of Government 2011, p.4). In regard to the desalination of water Middle East ranks first worldwide, representing a percentage of 60% of the relevant sector, as presented in the graph included in Figure 2 below. Figure 2 – Production of desalinated water, globally (source: Alterman & Dziuban 2010, p.2) Desalination plants have allowed countries of Middle East to increase their performance in terms of agricultural products. For example, using desalination Saudi Arabia has managed ‘to triple its farmland between 1980 and 1992’ Alterman & Dziuban 2010, p.3). 2.3 Political The involvement of politics in water management can have different forms. Most commonly, the political aspects of water crises are depended on the local social ethics and culture but also on the geographical position of the regions involved. In other words, water crises can be explained through politics, which, in the specific case, is mostly known as geo-politics. The geo-political aspect of water crisis in Middle East incorporates the following elements: a) Middle East North Africa (MENA) is of critical value in regard to its natural resources (Zyadin 2013, p.49). In addition, the specific region has an important performance as of ‘the production of industrial commodities’ (Zyadin 2013, p.49). Due to the above, the region is considered as powerful from a geopolitical perspective; still, the region is highly depended on the import of water for covering the daily needs of local populations but also for irrigation purposes (Zyadin 2013, p.49); b) Conflicts in Middle East are a common phenomenon; the co-existence in the region of populations with different cultural characteristics and religion has led to long term conflicts, which are still in progress (Kliot 2013, p.135). Even if these conflicts are not related to water their effects on water crisis cannot be doubted: countries, the relationship of which has been harmed by severe conflicts, cannot proceed, at least not easily, to negotiations for identifying effective plans for managing shared water resources (Kliot 2013, p.135); c) Middle East, as a region, has a strategic geographical position, being a bridge for connecting Asia with Eastern Mediterranean countries (Chellaney 2013, p.5). At the same time, certain of the states that constitute the Middle East region are quite powerful in terms of their economy; however, if referring to their water resources these countries are quite poor (Chellaney 2013, p.5). For example, Kuwait and Bahrain, two countries that are highly developed due to their income from petroleum, are ‘among the world’s five poorest states in aggregate internal water resources’ (Chellaney 2013, p.5). Due to the specific weakness these two countries need to keep their political framework aligned with the strategies of other countries, those that hold the control of water resources through which the water supply to Bahrain and Kuwait is secured (Chellaney 2013, p.5); d) The geo-political aspect of water crisis in Middle East is also verified through the following fact: the availability of water is often used by governments as a tool for attracting voters (Kliot 2013, p.136). Reference can be made, as an example, to Turkey. The above country has an important advantage: it is in Turkey where the sources of Tigris and Euphrates, the two major rivers of Middle East, are located (Figure 3). Through the map in Figure 3 it is made clear that only three countries in the particular region are benefited from Tigris and Euphrates: Turkey, Syria and Iraq (Figure 3). However, it is Turkey that has a decisive role in setting the conditions in regard to the amount of water available to Syria and Iraq. In 1980 the Turkish government reduced the water flows to Syria and Iraq trying to calm its voters who were complained for severe failures in electricity network (Kliot 2013, p.136). Then, Syria and Iraq had to face a severe water shortage (Kliot 2013, p.136). In other words, water can be part of a country’s political framework, at the level that water-related governmental decisions are used as means for securing the support of voters. Figure 3 – A map of Middle East/ Eastern Mediterranean regions showing the routes of Tigris and Euphrates (source: http://www.lightbridgemusic.com/images/mapnewmeso.jpg) The map presented in Figure 3 reveals an important characteristic of water crisis in Middle East (Dubai School of Government 2011, p.1). According to the particular map there are just three countries that are mostly benefited from the water of Tigris and Euphrates: Turkey, Syria and Iraq (Dubai School of Government 2011, p.1). Jordan neighbors with Iraq and Syria; therefore the above country can be benefited by the water of Tigris and Euphrates only indirectly (Dubai School of Government 2011, p.1). In terms of geo-politics this means that Jordan should emphasize on diplomacy/ negotiations in order to persuade Syria and Iraq to support the needs of Jordan for water. Israel and Palestine could possibly follow the same strategy, since neither of these countries has access to the water of Tigris and Euphrates. In 1990s negotiations were developed in regard to the construction of the “Peace Pipeline” a network that would allow the waters of Tigris and Euphrates to enter the territory of Israel (Selby 2005, p.329). The specific project was not approved by the parties involved, with Iraq to have the key responsibility for this outcome (Selby 2005, p.329). According to the issues discussed above, water ‘can be, of significant geopolitical weight’ (Selby 2005, p.330). It is for this reason, governments in countries of Middle East tend to use the policies referring to water management as means for ‘securing political stability and bolstering legitimacy’ (Alterman & Dziuban 2010, p.4). In practice, it has been proved that an effective regulatory framework is a prerequisite for the appropriate use of groundwater (Figure 4). Therefore, the power of governments to secure the effectiveness of water management practices cannot be denied. Figure 4 – Variables influencing the effective control on groundwater (source: Srinivasan et al. 2012, p.6) 3. Conclusion Water crisis in Middle East has been found to be related to a series of factors. The initiatives taken by the region’s governments, as explained above, can be characterized as effective but they should be periodically updated so that they can secure the adequacy of the water available for local populations. A key finding of this study is the following: governments across Middle East have used different approaches for managing problems related to water resources. Certain countries, like Syria and Palestine, rely on negotiations while others, such as Israel and Jordan, focus on projects that can increase the independency of country in terms of water. In other words, for certain countries self-adequacy is critical when referring to water while for others the sharing of existing water resources is preferred, mostly because they prefer to avoid a conflict that could harm their relationship with neighboring states. In any case, the water crisis in Middle East seems to be difficult to be terminated, since there is no agreement on the criteria on which the management of water region in the particular region should be based. The involvement of international organizations in the specific crisis is critical for avoiding the expansion of the conflict, a fact that could threaten the global security. References Alterman, J. & Dziuban, M. (2010) ‘Clear Gold: Water as a strategic resource in the Middle East’ Center for Strategic and International Studies. Retrieved from http://csis.org/files/publication/101213_Alterman_ClearGold_web.pdf Chellaney, B. (2013). Water, Peace, and War: Confronting the Global Water Crisis. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield. Dubai School of Government (2011). ‘The Water Challenge in the UAE.’ Policy Brief No 29. Retrieved from http://cpc.geodata.soton.ac.uk/resources/downloads/dsgpb29eng.pdf Hadadin, N., Qaqish, M., Akawwi, E. & Bdour, A. (2010). ‘Water shortage in Jordan — Sustainable solutions.’ Desalination, Vol 250, pp.197–202. Retrieved from https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/hebrew-university/Literature/Hadadin-etal-Desalin2010.pdf Kliot, N. (2013). Water Resources and Conflict in the Middle East. London: Routledge. Kummu, M., Ward, P., de Moel, H. & Varis, O. (2010). ‘Is physical water scarcity a new phenomenon? Global assessment of water shortage over the last two millennia.’ Environmental Results Letters, Vol 5. Retrieved from http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/5/3/034006/fulltext/ Rababa’a, G. (2012). ‘Water conflict in the Middle East.’ International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol 2, No 21, pp.13-27. Retrieved from http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol_2_No_21_November_2012/2.pdf Selby, J. (2005). ‘The Geopolitics of Water in the Middle East: fantasies and realities.’ Third World Quarterly, Vol 26, No 2, pp.329-349. Retrieved from http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/js208/thirdworldquarterly.pdf Selby, J. (2003). Water, Power and Politics in the Middle East: The Other Israel-Palestine Conflict. London: I.B.Tauris. Srinivasan, V., Lambin, E., Gorelick, S., Thompson, B. & Rozelle, S. (2012). ‘The nature and causes of the global water crisis: Syndromes from a meta-analysis of coupled human-water studies.’ Water Resources Research, Vol 48, pp.1-16. Retrieved from http://woods.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/files/Srinivasan%20et%20al_2011WR011087.pdf Zyadin, A. (2013). ‘Water Shortage in MENA Region: An Interdisciplinary Overview and a Suite of Practical Solutions.’ Journal of Water Resource and Protection, Vol 5, pp.49-58 Bibliography Biswas, A., Rached, E. & Tortajada, C. (2008). Water as a Human Right for the Middle East and North Africa. Ottawa: IDRC. Harris, L., Goldin, J. & Sneddon, C. (2013). Contemporary Water Governance in the Global South: Scarcity, Marketization and Participation. 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