Quality of Drinking Water and Climatic Changes - Essay Example

? Environmental Footprint Lab Report Possible coliform contamination of drinking water was the subject matter of our conducted research and experiment. Our experiment focused on effects of rainfall, warm weather and other environmental influences on coliform contamination and high standard plate counts. A sample of 78 households was scrutinized to identify presence of fecal coliforms, Staphylococcus aureus and standard plate count bacteria in drinking water extracted from private wells. Consequently, more than 40 households showed adverse signs of contamination, with higher coliform concentrations in post-rainfall periods and increased standard plate counts during warm climates. However, the presence of either infection threatened the existence of the other one, such that the presence of coliforms seemed to reduce high standard plate counts and vice versa. Findings showed major causes for this contamination to be the seepage of surface-water through weakened walls of private wells, aquifer pollution during cold weathers and the poor controls over microbial redevelopment through chlorination during summers. We recommend that there must be close surveillance and periodic or seasonal testing of water supplies, especially through private routes. Additionally, masses must be educated regarding potential risks of infections and precautionary measures that must be taken in order to mitigate possibilities of drinking water contamination. Introduction Drinking water is said to be contaminated if it exhibits concentration of 4 coliforms per 100 ml of water. Although, former researches have revealed that 90% of rural drinking water supplies are contaminated with coliforms, much work needs to done in this area to resolve conclusions that are backed up by strong evidences (Stukel et al., pp. 571). Contamination of drinking water through coliform, Staphylococcus aureus and standard plate count bacteria has been a prime concern of regulatory authorities and public at large in recent years due to significant number of casualties in this regard. As a result, various studies have been conducted to address these concerns, including a popular experimentation study by Sandhu, whereby correlation of coliform bacteria with characteristics of supply source and pH strengths of water was tested (Sandhu et al., pp. 774). Another study was conducted by Whitsell and Hutchison, indicating most significant dangers linked with coliform-containing contaminated water supply to households (Whitsell & Hutchison, pp. 777). In a more recent research, the relationship between coliform contamination and rainfall was studied through experimentation, targeting drinking water systems of smaller communities (Stukel et al., pp. 571). Much experimentation has been done in this area in the past; however, most of them focused on municipal supplies of drinking water to address a greater risk since the majority of population use public water supply rather than private. Surprisingly, of the reported contamination cases and waterborne diseases to date, 69% of affected households were using private supplies (Lamka et al., pp. 734). This study is intended to highlight frequency and magnitude of contamination of drinking water raised from private wells and springs that reaches millions of households. It will also be aimed at verifying our initial thesis that drinking water contamination mainly stems from usage of untreated groundwater and poorly maintained private wells. The details of experimentation have been discussed in areas to follow. Materials and Methods Our experimentation was outdoors-based and the most difficult task was to locate an area that will be most favorable for our experimentation and capable of generating appropriate results on a timely basis. The land selected for our experiment contained rich and deep soils with weathered basalt bedrock lying beneath it. A sample of 78 households was selected neighboring around this study area. Majority of these households were reportedly constructed within the last 5 years. They were interviewed about methods of extraction of water. We were informed that they generate water either from groundwater supplies through privately built wells, each bearing depth between 100 to 200 feet or otherwise from surface springs. Septic tanks are built about 100 feet away from wells and are used for disposing waste. After interviews, we drew drinking water samples from every household, without their interference to preserve objectivity, and placed them on ice for further processing and detection of any contamination. Standard procedures were used to prepare apparatus and indicator solutions for identifying each kind of bacteria. First, for tracing coliforms, including fecal coliforms, we used five-tube probability technique to quantify them and API 20E systems to discover their presence. Secondly, identification of standard plate count bacteria was the most complex part and required various different resources. For this purpose, we deployed carbohydrate fermentation broth, gelatin hydrolysis medium, tryptone broth, oxidase test reagent and standard plate count device having 3 IU of penicillin G. Finally, 0.45-Am membrane filters were placed in a Staphylococcus 110 incubator that was maintained at temperature of 35°C for a period of consecutive 2 days to indicate presence of Staphylococcus aureus. The methodology used was designed to optimally determine the anaerobic tendency of bacteria of causing fermentation of glucose and mannitol. These methods were not only capable of indicating presence of bacteria but were also aimed at categorizing all coliforms found into distinct species. After 2 days, all findings were noted and conclusions were made which have been discussed in subsequent sections. Results Findings showed that drinking water being consumed by 27 households was found to be polluted with bacteria including various species of coliforms and Staphylococcus aureus or with standard plate counts in excess of 500/ml. 9 distinct species of bacteria were found to be sources of contamination, dominated by fecal coliforms prevailing in 73% of the cases followed by Escherichia coli forming 13% of the total infections caused by coliforms. However, incidence of fecal coliform was restricted in cases where water contained higher proportions of bacteria and a standard plate count in excess of 100/ml. An inverse relationship was revealed between occurrence of coliform and increase in standard plate count, such that for samples where standard plate count increased upto 500/ml, the occurrence of coliform reduced drastically. Apart from this, there was a large number of isolated species of bacteria including mainly two forms of coliforms namely Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella pneumonia. Other isolated bacteria were identified in subsequent samples through the presence of Staphylococcus aureus in standard plate count and few comprised of opportunistic pathogens which do not survive as standalone but coexist with some host, namely coagulase and enterotoxin A. These enzymes are generated by Staphylococcus aureus which shows that it is potentially pathogenic as compared to Staphylococcus epidermidis which doesn’t release coagulase and is relatively less harmful. Day Standard plate count/ml Total Coliforms/100 ml Fecal Coliforms/100 ml Staphylococcus aureus/100 ml Number of Samples 1 3.7 x 10? 27 0 Not tested 1 1 5.7 x 10? 0 0 Not tested 15 1 1.6 x 10? 0 0 Not tested 24 1 1.1 x 10 34 0 Not tested 30 1 1.3 x 10 8 0 Not tested 38 1 1.2 x 10? 8 0 Not tested 39 1 1.7 x 10? 0 0 Not tested 47 1 3.1 x 10 5 0 Not tested 48 1 1.0 x 10 8 2 Not tested 56 2 7.7 x 10? 0 0 Not tested 30 2 1.0 x 10 2 0 Not tested 48 2 4.0 x 10 49 5 Not tested 56 2 1.6 x 10 33 0 Not tested 70 3 1.0 x 10? 0 0 1 17 3 5.1 x 10? 0 0 0 40 3 8.4 x 10? 0 0 0 42 3 2.0 x 10? 0 0 4 48 3 1.0 x 10 0 0 12 49 3 6.0 x 10 2 0 0 54 3 1.2 x 10? 0 0 0 55 3 1.0 x 10? 0 0 0 63 3 1.0 x 10 0 0 38 67 3 3.5 x 10? 0 0 0 73 4 5.0 x 10 0 0 2 14 4 1.9 x 10? 0 0 0 25 4 1.9 x 10? 0 0 600 29 4 3.0 x 10 2 0 0 36 4 5.7 x 10? 0 0 0 47 4 3.1 x 10? 13 0 0 50 4 3.0 x 10 2 0 0 56 4 7.2 x 10? 2 0 0 63 4 9.5 x 10? 0 0 0 65 4 5.7 x 10? 0 0 0 73 5 1.5 x 10? 2 0 Not tested 39 5 2.0 x 10 2 2 Not tested 56 5 7.0 x 10 2 0 Not tested 78 6 5.4 x 10? 0 0 Not tested 30 6 7.3 x 10? 0 0 Not tested 42 6 1.4 x 10? 2 0 Not tested 48 6 7.0 x 10 5 0 Not tested 56 6 6.0 x 10 33 2 Not tested 70 6 1.0 x 10 33 0 Not tested 72 Quality of drinking water seemed to be largely influence by climatic changes, such that periods immediately following rainfall exhibited the highest magnitude and prevalence of coliform in the water samples. Using probability theories, it can be compared and quantified that the extent of difference between presence of coliform in water before and after rainfall amounts to a value of 0.10. Another climatic influence was caused by warm and cold seasons, such that the significant level of difference between total plate counts found in drinking water during warmer periods (spring or summer) and cooler months (winter) amounted to an absolute value of 0.05. Discussion The presence of E. coli in turn means that fecal bacteria, pathogenic contamination, enteric viruses and intestinal leeches are infecting the drinking water that reaches masses. This indicates that a significant 15% proportion of the total households receiving this drinking water are being exposed to deadly risks, in spite of the fact that these private wells are claimed to match up-to-date quality and safety standards. The major problem faced during the experiment was due to the inability of coliforms to coexist in water that has high standard plate count. This negates many previous experiments that suggested that parallel testing should be conducted for detecting standard plate count bacteria and presence of coliforms to properly analyze the quality of potable water supply. As a result, excessive standard plate counts exceeding 500/ml, masked the presence of coliform under the probability theory as well as membrane filtration technique and led us into believing drinking water to be free of coliform, thereby underestimating the perils attached to the contamination of given supply. After consideration of this factor, experiment was repeated to account for the presence of coliform along with high standard plate counts. On the contrary, many of the bacteria found under total plate count belonged to isolated pathogenic species, such as Staphylococcus aureus producing coagulase and Aeromonas hydrophila. To cater this, we utilized standard plate counts to our benefit and carried out rigorous procedures focusing primarily on presence of Staphylococcus. As a result, we were able to discover that Staphylococcus aureus originates from affected tap aerator screens. Furthermore, it was observed that 8% of the households consumed drinking water containing high levels of Staphylococcus aureus parallel to elevated standard plate counts. For samples where Staphylococcus aureus exceeded 600/100 ml, the total plate count correspondingly enhanced above 1,000/ml, showing clearly their correlation. Therefore, we can safely assume that high standard plate count is a good indicator for detecting the overall quality of drinking water quality and the presence of harmful pathogens such as coagulase which becomes source of clotting of fibrin in human blood plasma. However, its failure to aid in revealing traces of coliform makes it unsuitable in certain cases. Based on these findings, the significance of education for general public, especially consumers situated in rural areas who are unaware of these concepts, comes into highlights. Heavy efforts are required to spread awareness about risks of contamination in drinking water that is being used regularly by households and preventive measures that can defend them against these threats. Standards must be established at national level and compliance with them must be enforced regarding construction of wells, maintenance of separate premises for dairy farm animals and wells, sanitary hygiene and education and training of people residing in such vicinities. People must be encouraged to carry out frequent testing and monitoring of water supply sources to detect any symptoms of contamination, especially during rainfall periods. They must realize that initial testing at time of installation of wells is not sufficient to provide assurance that water supply is clean and free of contamination: subsequent storage and interaction of waters with environmental factors play a crucial role in affecting its appropriateness and usability. The experimentation and its findings clearly showed that our initially established thesis was appropriate and scientifically rational. Environmental factors however play a vital role in this study; had there been other seasonal conditions available at the time of experiment, I would have been in a better position to understand how different climates generate different results. An extensive study needs to be conducted that covers a vast time period, using different weathers and climatic characteristics, to form an exhaustive and concrete conclusion about how contamination is affected by its surroundings. This experiment cannot be completed in an indoors setting since it practically happens otherwise. Therefore, to be true and fair to one’s hypothesis, it is essential that most accurate circumstances are recreated prior to carrying out the experiment. Also, this experiment doesn’t address the concerns and doubts about how modern practices would be able to resolve contamination issues for potable water supplies. Finally, it is pivotal that studies are carried out where more emphasis is laid on adverse effects caused by plate count bacteria, coliform masking and pathogenic infections. Since public domains providing drinking water have already received immense exposure from researchers, it is high time that more attention is focused on possibilities and consequences of contamination in private sources of drinking water. Conclusion Our experiments were targeted at verifying the reasonableness of our thesis whether drinking water generated from private wells and other sources is substantially contaminated with traces of coliform, Staphylococcus aureus and high standard plate counts. Without any preconceived notions, a land site was selected for experimentation and a random sample from neighboring areas was picked. Samples of drinking water were drawn from these households and thorough tests were carried out to identify the presence of harmful bacteria. As a result, we were able to discover high standard plate counts exceeding 100/ml, heavy proportions of fecal coliform and Staphylococcus aureus including various pathogenic substances. I came across various issues during my study such as prevention of detection of coliform due to presence of material standard plate counts. This undermined our research initially but alternate procedures were conducted subsequently to overcome this obstacle. Mostly people were unaware of these contaminations and reasons behind them. It mandates mentioning that comprehensive educational programs must be held in such territories to spread awareness about hazards of infections present in drinking water and steps that must be taken by them to mitigate the risks. Radical measures must be taken by health and safety regulatory authorities, pressure groups and activist organizations to treat this water and rectify the circumstances which cause such contaminations such as proper reconstruction of wells, periodic testing, continuous monitoring and allocation of national budgets to hygienic processing and purification of drinking water. References Lamka, K. G., LeChevallier, M. W., & Seidler, R. J. (1980). Bacterial contamination of drinking water supplies in a modern rural neighborhood. Applied and environmental microbiology, 39(4), 734-738. Sandhu, S. S., Warren, W. J., & Nelson, P. (1979). Magnitude of pollution indicator organisms in rural potable water. Applied and environmental microbiology, 37(4), 744-749. Stukel, T., Greenberg, E., Dain, B., Reed, F., & Jacobs, N. (1990). A longitudinal study of rainfall and coliform contamination in small community drinking water supplies. Environmental Science & Technology, 24(4), 571-575. Whitsell, W. J., & Hutchinson, G. D. (1973). Seven danger signals for individual water supply. Trans. Amer. Soc. Agri. Eng, 16, 777-781. Read More