Contrast and Comparison - Essay Example

? Contrast and comparison is unquestionably an integral means of learning. With the expansion and colonization of the developed world, Europe had much to learn from the cultures of indigenous peoples. This analysis will examine and look at how two writers reflect on the notion of a contrast of cultures. The question examined asks how Overseas discoveries could be used to suggest fundamental questions about the values and standards of a civilization. And, it will be argued that both Shakespeare and Montaigne reflect on colonialism in a way that sheds light both on the colonized, and the colonizers. It will be argued that both writers represent a challenge to the burgeoning rise of cultural imperialism that was a force in their historical era. The historical context or background of Shakespeare's age and Montaignes, is important. Shakespeare and Montaigne both lived in an age when exploration and colonial expansion was in its early phase. At the forefront of the European expansion into the 'new world', was the early sixteenth century exploration and colonization of the West Indies, South and Central America1. What is important to note, is that colonization or colonialism brought with it an imperial set of attitudes and beliefs. The people of the new world were largely viewed as uncivilized, and the state of nature that they were living in was viewed as inferior to the European invaders. It is these attitudes, for example, that facilitated the enslavement of people. Likewise, what soon followed with colonial expansion, were missionaries or the missionary movement of the Catholic Church in Europe. Both slavery and the sentiment of missionaries, are premised on assumptions that the inferiority of a people legitimated their exploitation. That is, the missionaries goal was to civilize the people and take them away from what was perceived as barbaric practices. It is interesting to note that it took centuries before Europe was able to let go of its basically 'patriarchal' views of people in the under developed world2. Expansion and colonization, was an important source of fascination for Europeans in the time of Montaigne and Shakespeare3. While Europe had a geographical and therefore, cultural connection with South and East Asia, the 'new world' or the the Americas held a great deal of interest. Montaignes sources for his writing, were some of the written accounts of explorers who had encountered cultures in South America, and one of the elements that is significant, is the connection with nature4. Montaigne writes of the people of the new world, in a way that can be described as paternalistic or patronizing, but also reverent in that he sees them as living in harmony with nature: “and they are, moreover, happy in this, that they only covet so much as their natural necessities require”5. In Montaigne, there is the sentiment expressed as what later became known as the theory of the “noble savage”6. That is, the perspective that civilization is essentially a corrupting force, and that people who live closer to a state of nature are more noble. Individuals who live in a state of nature, are living in a sustainable relationship with their environment. They consume only what they need, and are not reaching beyond the basic needs. In Montaignes world, there would very obviously been a contrast of lifestyles insofar as he would be immediately familiar with the folly of consumption. Likewise, the wealth and behavior's of Prospero and his noble visitors are presented as a stark contrast to the state of nature that the character of Caliban lives in as we shall see from the Tempest. It might be argued that Shakespeare's Tempest represents a very early form of a critique of colonialism. Central to this perspective, is the figure of Caliban. The background to the story is that a nobleman from Italy or Milan, named Prospero and his daughter Miranda are exiled on a faraway island. The only inhabitant on the island who Prospero and Miranda have contact with is a figure named Caliban. The name Caliban is believed to be a play on the word Cannibal, and the source for Shakespeare's notion of a cannibal is actually Montaigne's essay 'On Cannibalism'7. Upon his encounter with Caliban, he takes it upon himself to civilize him. This is the patriarchal ideal that was mentioned earlier in the context of the values or goals of the missionaries who helped with colonization. For example, Prospero asserts of Caliban that he is: “like / A thing most brutish”8 and that he treated him with “human care”9. That is, he set out to turn the brute into something that was civilized or reflecting the values of his own culture. It is important to note that Prospero really believed in the 'human care'. That is, he believed that the process of teaching Caliban to speak and read was something that was in his best interest. We can see in this example the patriarchal nature of his intentions, but at the same time, they are intentions that are well meaning. However much Prospero tries to civilize Caliban, he fails at it. In spite of Prospero's best intentions at “human care”10, much of the behavior and even the language of the figure of the new world becomes defiant. One of the core defining actions of the play is the rape of Miranda or Prospero's daughter by Caliban. And, also an open rebellion toward Prospero. Prospero manages through his magical spirit, Ariel, to magically conjure up a storm that shipwrecks Alonso, Ferdinand, Sebastian, Antonio, Gonzalo, Stephano, and Trinculo. Alonso was Prospero's brother and was the individual responsible for exiling Prospero in order to consolidate his own power. Among many of the events within the narrative, one of the aspects important to this analysis is that Caliban forms a plot with some of the shipwrecked individuals. Trinculo and Stephano one day get Caliban intoxicated, and in turn, the three of them begin acting fairly savagely. At this point Caliban tells them of a plot which would involve getting rid of Prospero. Likewise, too, his behavior is rebellious insofar as he rapes Miranda. With the understanding of the rape, and the generally rebellious behavior's of Caliban, Prospero begins to see the folly of his attempt at trying to civilize him in the first place: “devil, a born devil, on whose nature / Nurture can never stick”11. This particular passage raises some important self realizations. Prospero makes an important distinction between “nature” and “nurture”. And, that is to say that however much he tried to nurture or civilize Caliban, his efforts seemed to fail. Caliban is described as a “devil born”. That is to say, there is a failure recognized with the colonizing effort made by Prospero. However much one teaches or cultivates an individual, it seems insufficient if the individual is born in a state of nature. This is reflected too in a passage where Caliban is reflecting on his own education: “You taught me language, and my profit on’t Is I know how to curse. The red plague rid you For learning me your language!”12. For both Caliban and Prospero, there is unquestionably a failure perceived in regard to education. Montaigne is also critical of aspects of colonization. As mentioned earlier, he views that the state of nature is one where conspicuous consumption or the acquisition of more than one needs is not a quality or characteristic of people in the new world. In the closing section of his essay, he writes: “that there were amongst us men full and crammed with all manner of commodities, whilst, in the mean time, their halves were begging at their doors, lean, and half starved with hunger and poverty”13. Clearly, Montaigne is holding up the virtues of indigenous peoples against the culture of Europeans. A people that lives only for necessity, or consuming only what they need in order to subsist, is valued by Montaigne. Civilization or European culture, is at the heart and source of basic inequality. With civilization comes the polarization of the rich and poor, and while education and all that entails as far as culture might be valued for those who have it, it is also the very cause of the inequalities that leave people “starved with hunger and poverty”14. He is in a sense a relativist who maintains that all cultures exhibit different value systems and sets of beliefs. While it might be that Europeans abhor some aspects of the behavior's for people in the 'new world', Montaigne points out that the very reverse is also true. Indigenous people view the polarity between rich and poor in European society in a critical manner. Having looked at some of the particular themes expressed in Montaigne and Shakespeare, there is now sufficient evidence to reflect upon how overseas discoveries could be used to suggest fundamental questions about the values and standards of a civilization. Both writers question the basic values with respect to Europe in light of what is encountered with indigenous peoples. In the Tempest, we saw how Prospero's efforts to civilize Caliban were a dismal failure. However much education was valued as the means to a more civilized individual, Caliban's basic nature was one of defiance. Rather than seeing education and civilizing as a force for anything positive, Caliban rebelled against these values as he perceived them as a force for oppression. By oppression, it can be said that he saw no use within his own world of subsistence for that which Prospero had held to such esteem. Likewise, Prospero became a lot less naive about the civilizing forces that he imposed on Caliban. While he may have been learned, he was blind to how people actually acted. It can be said that nature or the forces of human nature represented by the base desires of Caliban, are something that Prospero learned from. Likewise with Montaigne. He demonstrates that there is much to learn from indigenous peoples with regard to how they are much more egalitarian. The very values that Prospero and most Europeans of their age championed, were as much a force of oppression as they are a force for good. Or, rather, they are a force for good for those who can afford them. The state of nature for Montaigne was something that Europe had gone far away from, which he does not see necessarily as good given that outside of a state of nature there is the polarization of the rich from poor. In conclusion, both Shakespeare and Montaigne challenge cultural imperialism. They both lived in a age when it was believed that European culture was superior to that of the developing world, and these attitudes and beliefs led to the oppression and ultimately, enslavement of millions. Both Shakespeare and Montaigne reflect on difference as relative. They challenge the theory of superiority by looking at the implications and consequences of cultivating indigenous peoples, and further, challenge the idea that indigenous peoples are inferior. While most of Europe had a mandate of imposing their learning upon indigenous people, it can be said that both Shakespeare and Montaigne saw them as an opportunity to learn. That is, learn about themselves through learning about the 'other'. Works Cited: Keen, B., and Haynes, K. (2009). A History of Latin America. New York: Houghton and Mifflin. McGregor, G. (1988). The noble savage in the new world garden: notes toward a syntactics of place. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Montaigne, M. (1877). The Essays of Montaigne. London: Reeves and Turner. Nicholl, C. (1995). The Creature in the Map: A Journey to El Dorado. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Peirce, S. and Rao, A. (2006). Discipline and the other body: correction, corporeality, colonialism. Chapel Hill: Duke University Press. Shakespeare, William. (2005). The Complete Works. Second Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zalloua, Z. (2005). Montaigne and the ethics of skepticism. Charlottesville: Rockwood Press. How overseas discoveries raise fundamental questions about the values and standards of civilization: An analysis of Shakespeare and Montaigne. Read More