Architecture and the Role of Research - Essay Example

?Qualitative Research and Architecture I. Architecture and the Role of Research Architecture pertains to the design of structures or set of structures in a way that is artistic or appeal to man’s artistic needs and in a manner that man’s general and specific needs are addressed in the structures or set of structures. The structures or set of structures can be a house, a set of houses, a village, residential area, a road system, a city design, a building, a public landmark, a public facility, a government compound, a private compound, a private facility, a public facility, and many others. The nature of a structure implies a need or needs that the structure will have to address. Man’s needs are many. Some of the more basic ones pertain to food, clothing, and shelter. Beyond the basic needs are the need for leisure, recreation, social life, and aesthetics. This is only a small fraction of some of man’s needs. At the same time, architectural design can also come in to define how each of these needs will be addressed. All families need a living room but the living room can be small, large, or very large, depending on how one would define his or her family’s needs for a living room. Further, even if all families may want a specific size of a living room. However, the same living room may be elegant, classy, or simply simple. Take for instance, a shelter or a home. How should a home be designed in a way that the shelter becomes aesthetic and responsive to the needs of a family? Aesthetics have perspectives. The family or the client’s taste can be gothic, roman, modern, conservative, classic, psychedelic or specific taste. They homeowner may be of Latin American heritage, African, European, Asian, French, Chinese, American Indian, Black American, or from another race or ethnicity. Each of the race or ethnic group may have a perspective on aesthetics that project their heritage and the homeowner may want that projected in his home. The family or client may want his home to project specific symbolisms or values. The client may want to project power, wealth, taste, values, culture, and the like. The client may be catholic-religious and may want his home to project his faith: he or she may want to adorn his house with the statues of saints or the Roman Catholic version of the cross. He or she may be a Muslim and may want to reflect his or her faith in the home in a manner that consistent with the faith of Islam. A home is designed to meet the needs of the owner. Will the homeowner be needing a prayer room? A computer room? A library? Will he or she want a social room? How large will the social room be? How many people should it accommodate when space and budget are not constraints? Is there anything in the homeowner’s heritage that suggest how large the social room should be? How many bedrooms? Of course, an architect may directly ask the prospective homeowner for design information. However, what if so many houses will have to be constructed and rows of houses will have to be designed in advance or before they are sold? Further, how could architects design the homes even before the architects meet the potential homeowners? This is the case for many subdivisions wherein houses are designed without the benefit of information on specifications from buyers. On the matter of anticipating the house buyers’ preferences for houses and architectural design, an architect’s knowledge of research is useful as the basis for architectural design. II. Qualitative Research Although, thousands of books have emerged on qualitative research, the literature usually on describe but not explicit define qualitative research. For instance, Bergman (2008, p. 12) described qualitative research to have the following characteristics and/or assumptions/perspectives: 1. How man would perceive reality or fact is a construction, especially a social construction, and a multiple reality exists. In other words, men would describe the same reality in different ways because each of them would have a specific perspective on reality. 2. There is interdependence between the knower and what is to be known. In other words, how one would interpret the facts or data will also depend on social location of the researcher. What would constitute as facts or reality are not independent of the perspective of the researcher. 3. Full objectivity is impossible because a researcher ultimately sees data and facts from his or her perspective. 4. Defining the context under which the research is undertaken is important. This is especially because, “it is impossible to generalize the research findings beyond the limits of immediate.” 5. Causes and effects are impossible to distinguish. 6. The research has an explicit focus or emphasis on inductive and exploratory approaches. 7. There is an emphasis on small, non-representative samples, consistent with its view that generalization beyond limits of immediate context is impossible. 8. Research should be non-reductionist because it must show the complexity of a phenomenon. Creswell (2007, p. 53-100) identified five main approaches employed in qualitative research: narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, ethnographic, and case study. Creswell (2007, p. 55) describe narrative research to include biographies, autobiographies, oral histories, and life histories. In addition, narratives may have a contextual focus as in the experience of students in classroom or stories on how the organization was established or how it operated (Creswell 2007, p. 55). A narrative can be guided by a theoretical lens or perspective (Creswell 2007, p. 55). It may also use testimonies (Creswell 2007, p. 55). A narrative study research can be implemented as follows. First, identify whether the research is applicable for a narrative research (Creswell 2007, p. 55). Second, select one or more individuals who have stories to tell on the subject matter (Creswell 2007, p. 55). Third, collect information on the context of stories (Creswell 2007, p. 55-56). Fourth, analyze the story and re-tell the story so it would make sense (Creswell 2007, p. 56). The qualitative analysis can take the form of a description of the story and the themes that may emerge from the story (Creswell 2007, p. 56). A phenomenological study research “describes the meaning for several individuals of their lived experience of a concept or a phenomenon” (Creswell 2007, p. 57). There are two important elements here. One element is that there is an emphasis on the meaning of a concept or phenomenon for several individuals. The second element is that there is also an emphasis on “lived experience” or, simply, experience. In other words, the experience on the concept or phenomenon must be real and not theoretical although the concept involved may be theoretical. A ground theory study is designed to “generate or discover a theory, an abstract analytical scheme of a process” (Creswell 2007, p. 57, based on the work of Strauss and Corbin). The requirement in the ground theory research is that the participants would have to live an experience and must be keen on developing a theory “that might help explain practice or provide a framework for further research” (Creswell 2007, p. 63). According to Creswell (2007, p. 63-64), recently, a postmodern perspective in ground theory study emerged in which research participants highlights “the political nature of research and interpretation”, reflexivity, recognition of problems of representing information, issues of legitimacy and authority, and explicit adoption by the researcher of a “study participant status” in the research rather than an “all-knowing” position. According to Creswell (2007, p. 64-67), one of the more complicated variants of the ground theory approach is that one adopted by Strauss and Corbin in 1990 and 1998. In a ground theory study research, a researcher constructs a theory from the examination of several individuals “who share in the same process, action, or interaction” (Creswell 2007, p. 638). However, “the study participants are not likely to be located in the same place or interacting on so frequent a basis that they develop shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language” (Creswell 2007, p. 68). Creswell’s fourth main type of qualitative research, the ethnography, can be described as a research approach that can use the three main approaches discussed earlier: the narrative, phenomenology, and the ground theory study. The most important aspect of the ethnographic research is that its objective is to describe the cultural of a small or large group of people considered to belong to a particular category or description. According to Creswell (2007, p. 69-70), there are two main perspectives in ethnographic studies: the realist and the critical perspectives. The realist ethnographer presents his or her research as “objective” and usually writes the research in the third person “dispassionate voice” (Creswell 2007, p. 69). In addition, the realist ethnographer presents himself or herself in the background and as an “omniscient reporter” of “facts”. He or she reports the data in a manner that will be seen as objective and “uncontaminated by personal bias, political goals, and judgment” (Creswell 2007, p. 70). In contrast, the critical ethnographer highlights in his or her ethnography how “the systems of power, prestige, privilege, and authority serve to marginalize individuals who are from different classes, races, and genders” (Creswell 2007, p. 70). Critical ethnographers advocate the “emancipation of groups marginalized in society”, empowerment of people “by giving them more authority”, “challenging the status quo”, and “addressing concerns about power and control” (Creswell 2007, p. 70). According to Creswell (2007, p. 70-72), the basic procedures in ethnographic research are as follows. First, determine if ethnography is the appropriate research design for the study (Creswell 2007 p. 70). Second, identify and “locate a culture-sharing group to study” (Creswell 2007, p. 71). Third, select the cultural themes to study about the group (Creswell 2007, p. 71). The identification of the themes serves as the analysis component of the research (Creswell 2007, p. 71). The themes may include “enculturation, socialization, learning, cognition, domination, inequality, or child and adult development” (Creswell 2007, p. 71). Fourth, the ethnographer must study deeper the cultural concepts (Creswell 2007, p. 71). However, in doing this, the ethnographer has to choose between the realist and critical perspectives or options in ethnography (Creswell 2007, p. 71). Creswell’s fifth step calls for fieldwork but third and fourth steps may not be possible to do if fieldwork was not done in the first place. Another way of interpreting Creswell’s fifth step is the contextualization research must be done to improve our analysis of the data obtained from the third and fourth steps. Creswell’s sixth step involves synthesizing data and findings into a cultural portrait (Creswell 2007, p. 72). The cultural portrait is the final product of the ethnographic research process (Creswell 2007, p. 72). In the cultural portrait, one must take care to reflect also the perspectives of the participants or the members of the group being studied, known as the emic, as well as the perspectives of the researchers, known as the etic (Creswell 2007, p. 72). A case study research “involves the study the study of one issue explored through one or more cases within a bounded system” (Creswell 2007, p. 73). The “bounded system” may be a “setting” or “context” (Creswell 2007, p. 73). Creswell (2007, p. 73) elaborated that a: “case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a bounded system (a case) or a multiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observation, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and case-based themes.” In other words, the final product of a case study research is a case study report in which themes may be discussed within or through the case study or study of cases. In a case study, the case study may involve several programs and multiple sites or a single program involving one or several cases (Creswell 2007, p. 72). According to Creswell (2007, p. 74-75), the steps for conducting a case study are as follows. First, determine whether the case study approach is appropriate to the research problem (Creswell 2007, p. 74). Second, identify the case or cases for in-depth study (Creswell 2007, p. 75). In choosing the case or cases for case study, purposive sampling is employed (Creswell 2007, p. 75). This means that one selects case or cases based on purposes or objectives or one uses a set of criteria for selecting the case or cases. Third, collect the data for the case study (Creswell 2007, p. 75). For this, Creswell recommends the use of multiple sources of information through observation, interviews, documents, and audiovisual materials (2007, p. 75). In addition, Creswell (2007, p. 75) pointed out that the material of Yin in 2003 recommended six types of sources of information to analyze: interviews, documents, archives, participant-observation, direct observation, and physical artifacts. Since 2007 or from the time that Creswell (2007) wrote his material, my impression is that the range of data gathering techniques and approaches to qualitative research has widened. However, for brevity and simplicity, I do not wish to cover the other perspectives and approaches available, noting that Creswell’s observation of the five approaches as the main approaches in qualitative research appears correct, reliable, and usable for research purposes. For instance, while the review of literature has been merely considered as a component of a research process, I noticed some research materials in the internet that explicitly considered the review of literature as a research technique or approach by itself that can produce valid or reliable findings. I go now to discuss the qualitative research techniques that are useful for architecture based on the input of Creswell (2007). III. Architectural Research in the Literature In my opinion, among the most useful research techniques or approaches that are most relevant for architecture and architectural design are as follows: the narrative, ground theory, ethnography, and case study. The subject matter that can be covered by these techniques and approaches can involve the needs of a particular population, their aesthetics senses or perspectives (assuming that even one cultural or social group can have a variety of aesthetic senses), their typical design preferences or wants for a structure or structure system, and the like. Let us check the literature on what types of research have been made in architecture and the approach or research techniques they used. Whyte (2006, p. 153) that architectural history is an important subject matter both for history and architecture. Using documents and specific examples, he argued that architecture conveys meanings (White 2006, p. 177). Hall (2000) investigated symbolism and sacramentalism in the Anglican Church from 1850-1870. His study used a combination of using historical documents, archival research, observation of the physical structure of the churches as seen today, photograph documentation, and interpretation. Legault (1991) reviewed how architecture is represented and noted the role played by the archives and monuments of the past in depicting the architecture of the past. Through his review of several studies, however, Legault pointed out that language plays as well in the representation of early architecture (1991, p. 200). Lewis (1978) used several studies to construct how Europeans have viewed American architecture during the late 19th century. His review of documents allowed him to conclude that “European criticism of American architecture was superficial and condescending until the last quarter of the 19th century” (Lewis 1978, p. 265). Kostoff (1977, p. 201) criticized the work of Joseph Rykwert on the how urbanization was implemented in the ancient world, particularly in Rome and Italy. The material can be considered a research that used document review to generate insights. Unfortunately, Kostoff merely praised the views of Rykwert. In the 1977 material, the Rykwert’s material is the document reviewed. In 1967, however, Kostoff did better. Using documents and his own visual appraisal of early Christian and Byzantine architecture based on artifacts, Kostoff (1967) criticized a book on the subject matter by Richard Krautheimer. Versus the findings of Krautheimer, Kostoff (1967, p. 263-264) presented at least five points on how early Christian and Byzantine architecture can be appraised. Thus, as shown by journals that we have reviewed, some of techniques used for research in architecture include artifact collection and presentation, analysis of historical documents, and analysis of the structures. IV. My View on Application of Qualitative Research for Architecture Nevertheless, as I have pointed out earlier, for me, among the most useful research techniques or approaches that architecture can use are the narrative, ground theory, ethnography, and case study. The research agenda of architectural research can involve the standard of living of the target population, typical structural needs that can be subject for architectural design, the typical specifics needed in the structures that the population requires, the range of their aesthetic sense and their typical aesthetic sense, designs for structure that the population typically prefers, and the like. In implementing the narrative, ground theory, ethnography and case study approaches and techniques can utilize the prescriptions of Creswell (2007) for the research process. I have discussed the prescriptions of Creswell (2007) on the four qualitative research methodology or research technique. With regard to the research output or how the research findings and data can be presented, the following will be applicable: 1. The research output for a narrative is a narrative document. 2. An ethnographic document or write-up is the appropriate research output for ethnography. 3. The ultimate product for a ground theory research may involve the formulation of design principles that can be used for a certain population or that a population use de facto or implicitly in their structural designs, and a case study document. Of course, the set of design principles identified or formulated should be supported by the documentation of the ground theory research. 4. The research output for a case study is a case study document, of course. The preceding points were also covered by Creswell (2007). V. Conclusion Based on the discussion of this work, qualitative research is useful for architecture. Based on the discussion of Creswell (2007), I have identified the usefulness of a narrative, ethnography, ground theory research, and case studies. Other approaches that can also be useful include the review of literature. Architecture will find qualitative research useful for identifying needs, design principles, and aesthetic senses or values for architectural design. At minimum, data and findings from research can be a source of their inspiration to venture for innovations in architectural designs or they can introduce innovative architectural designs that somehow link with the specific milieu of a certain population. References Bergman, M., 2008. Advances in mixed method research: Theories and applications. Los Angeles and London: Sage Publication. Creswell, J., 2007. Qualitative inquiry and research design. Thousand Oaks and London: Sage Publication. Hall, M., 2007. What do Victorian churches mean? Symbolism and sacramentalism in Anglican Church, 1850-1870. Journal of Society of Architectural Historians, 59 (1), 78-95. Kostoff, S., 1967. Early Christian and Byzantine architecture. The Art Bulletin, 49 (3), 261-264. Kostoff, S., 1977. “Review of ‘The Idea of a Town: The Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy, and the Ancient World’ by Joseph Rykwert.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 36 (3), 201-202. Legault, R., 1991. Architecture and historical representation. Journal of Architectural Education, 44 (4), 200-205. Lewis, A., 1978. A European profile of American Architecture. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 37 (4), 265-282. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J., 1990. Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newsbury Park, CA: Sage. Whyte, W., 2006. How do buildings mean. Some issues of interpretation of in the history of architecture. History and Theory, 45 (2), 153-157. Yin, R., 2003. Case study research: Design and method. 3rd Ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication. Read More