Cartography: Maps and Geographical Information Systems - Essay Example

0 Importance of Maps to GIS The versatility of GIS and Maps in visually integrating and interpreting data sets in their geographical setting, and in a user friendly manner, is well known. Generally this ability is associated with the map maker’s art and modern geographical data bases. The influence of maps and allied data processing has received much attention in recent times in the context of their ability to facilitate strategic decision making situations linked directly to current matters like crisis management, early warning systems and global issues like society development and eradication of poverty. GIScience addresses numerous essential subjects associated with digital expertise and knoweldeg in use for handling of geographical data such as location, activities, and phenomena on the surface of the Earth represented through maps or images. Consequently, the capability of maps to visualize geographical information and the geo-spatial patterns, has made them to prominent in the GIScience study and process.   It was Goodchild who authored the concept of GIScience around the year 1992. He described GIScience as a Discipline of Science dealing with GIS technology and the obstructions affecting the scientific representation of geo spatial data.  Experts further elaborated on this concept and described the function of GIScience as addressing the fundamental research principles forming the basis of GIS. It was also sought to be explained as application of GIS to solve scientific problems. From the research point of view, there is justification to conclude that visual representation of GIS data is a major concern of GIScience. These perceptions about the GIScience were further stretched by the books and journals which appeared during the beginning phase of the Science. Maps aid in visual thinking and it would be logical to conclude that GIScience is the application of scientific methodology through maps to the research on GIS. While GIS attempts to represent Geo- spatial data in a methodical, and an intelligible manner through maps, GIScience attempts to address the problems arising in doing so, and further provides reference basis to interpret information represented in maps. GIScience thus studies spatial representations in maps, map analysis and accuracy in map applications, map visualization, and other similar queries regarding use of maps for the benefit of the society. The significance of maps in the GIScience has automatically overlapped the traditional disciplines that deal with the Earth’s complete geographical study and environment. Further, the use of maps in GIS is not restricted to the above mentioned subjects, but they also deal with IT Cognitive Sciences besides dealing into artificial intelligence. While it affects each of these sciences, GIScience and maps are not central to any of them. It is by itself a new kind of Collaborative Science involving researchers from diverse backdrops working mutually to resolve related problems. These problems being scientific in character and are also related to resource management, commerce, and administration, (Andrienko, and Andrienko, 1999)..   Referring to maps, they were the first tools to be used for representing, synthesizing, analyzing and interpreting geographical data. The rise of Geographical Information Systems has encouraged these functions further. The rigours and elaborate labour associated with the production of maps has now been reduced and there is the added convenience of being able to produce numerous versions of a map from different view points, just by clicking a specific option button or a click of the mouse. Experts haves cited the proliferation of maps, as a result of the emergence of the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW). It may be argued also that the quality of such instant maps is no match to the product of the cartographer’s precise and painstaking labour, (Frerichs, 20001). Experts may argue that the precise and laborious map is not always a necessity for a quick grasp of a ground level reality and corresponding timely action. Data accuracy and adequacy are determined with reference to the immediate fitness for ise. Availability of a workable map may be more useful than an accurate map received well after the time for its use has passed. Dykes et al (2005) in their book on “Exploring Geo-visualization”, while recognizing the traditional role of map as a tool to present information, have also pointed out the need for the map to be seen as ‘a supple interface to geospatial data’ as maps assist in providing communication with the data behind the map’s visual representation. They also cite the fact that maps are facilitators of exploration studies conducted with the help of GIScience. Maps are used to stimulate visual thinking over the geo-spatial patterns. Interpretations concerning relations and patterns in these data are a natural result in the GIScience process. Dykes et al (2005) have pointed out the role of maps in GIScience, which is a collectively defined domain dealing with the examination, investigation, synthesis, and depiction of all the available geospatial data. It incorporates approaches from diverse disciplines like cartography, and combines with them picture analysis, data visualization and analytics, and exploratory data analysis. By now it would be obvious that the notion of a Map is being discussed in a liberal sense. Since solving geo-problems necessarily involve maps because of the location aspect, they are a must in the GIScience context. 2.0 Reference to Cartography Usability analysis of GIScience and map design hinge upon a thorough grasp of Cartographic communication technique. Map design rules have emerged from a study of the principles and theory of cartography. Reading a map involves the acquisition and absorption of information and cartographic knowledge. The theory of cartographic communication evolves continuously and provides new inputs like audio and video to the Cartographer for enhancing the efficacy of their work. GIScience has developed this audio and tactual inputs to give support to the perception process.   Theory of learning developed from contemporary cartography approach supports the map reading approach and map use research. With the skill level of the readers and map users changing significantly, there is a growing body of inputs provided by the users to the knowledge pool about map making and map reading. Use patterns are also yielding new insights into the perceptional and application patterns. New technologies like Satellite Navigation, Mobile Applications etc are also adding to the range of new  learning. Mental Maps and cartograms are emerging as new trends in Cartographic Research. Map design skills will continue to be dominated by spatial thinking and spatial perception skills. The growing trend of accessing cartographic products through mobile and position enabled devices is welcoming from the user point of view and it important that at the same time, cartographic science keeps pace with these changes.   Any study about the usability of a map or GI system is significant from the point of view of the  users. Irrespective of whether they are Administrative personnel or planners, critical use of the map or GI system will call for informed reading and reference. Maps have in general been made user –centric. They are also based on thorough knowledge of the elements of usability. Technological advances have made it possible for users now to access and retrieve information or basic data from diverse sources and in a variety of forms. Moreover, the user is no more handicapped by the limited choices of map display.   Initially, GIS was frequently condemned for its meager cartographic class and map construction ability, but, contemporary GIS systems consist of a set of cartographic and map production services which have to the highest degree supported international mapping agencies, publishers, (Goodchild, 1992). In addition, new web based technologies based on cartographic rules are used to create high quality maps and this endorses the close connection between GIS and cartography.    3.0 Contribution to Society The versatility of G I Science has made it possible for it to enter new avenues of applications for decision making. It is also facilitating knowledge creation. A summary of these new areas of application follows:    3.1 Forestry GIS, in collaboration with European Foresters utilizes Common GIS and Visualization Tool Kit which helped to create a large pool of spatio-temporal data related to Forests in Europe and made it available over the Internet for use by non-expert third party users. The review of the Report on this Project gives a good insight into some elementary issues concerning GIS and Research. One major area of concern expressed by the participating Foresters was the fear of uncontrolled exploration by non-expert users. The GIS experts were unable to assuage these fears. The Foresters also appeared to be unconvinced of the efficacy of GIS for the Foresters’ work. They appeared to be more at home with conventional Cartographic information system. 3.2 Archaeology GIS, for the first time provides the Archaeologists with the tool to record their findings in exploration in three dimensional form. Past records in two dimensions had severe distortions of the reality on the ground. The new technology provides opportunity for the Archaeological Researchers and the Computer Scientists to collaborate. 3.3 Environmental Studies GIS’s ability to produce simulated maps for various kinds of variables like climate, time, etc. makes it possible for Policy planners to make informed choices in matters affecting safety of  the population vis-a-vis climate change, soil erosion etc. There is an option to have age-referenced simulation modeling which is a very powerful tool for educating the common man. 3.4 Urban Planning Availability of spatio-temporal data and access to the simulation tools of GIS make it possible for the Planners as well as the citizens to create a” what if “ scenario and make their own decisions. Here it is necessary to draw a distinction between the use of GIS tools in the private domain , by experts and the Public domain where the conclusions and hypotheses arrived at be the experts may be shared by them with the public. The Tools of GIS are used by planners for modeling the diverse concerns of the general public. Three Dimensional, photo-realistic representations of simulated future scenarios as per different Urban Planning options are very useful in education the public on policy matters, like the impact of pollution or control measures over time. The growing use of Internet by the citizens also facilitates quicker consultation in such matters agitating the public mind.   4.0 Conclusion   Researchers are enabled to provide adequate insight into various aspects of a problem in the background of geo-spatial realities and GIS / maps have a significant role to play here. It results in informed decisions being arrived at easily and accurately. This is a role played by the maps since long and retain now also. The impact has actually increased with the availability of better tools. The Cartographic design process has made the abstraction of reality more viable. Maps serve as flexible interfaces that facilitate interaction of the user with the data underlying the map. They help explore the data in a visual manner through visual simulation and promoting visual thinking. Such thinking eventually points to trends  beyond the immediately visible facts in a given geographical area. Maps, thus provide the range of experiences from the simple presentation to the advanced exploration in a logical setting,with dynamic ease and in an interactive way, which makes the experience more valuable to the user. Maps are important.     5.0 References Dykes, J., MacEachren, A. M. and Kraak, M. J. (2005). Exploring geovisualization, Elsevier, Amsterdam Andrienko, G. L. and Andrienko, N. V. (1999). ‘Interactive Maps for Visual Data Exploration’, International Journal of Geographic Information Science, 4, 355–374 Frerichs, R. R. (2001). ‘History, maps and the Internet: UCLA’s John Snow site’, SoC Bulletin, 2, 3–7 Goodchild, M. (1992). ‘Geographical Information Science’, Inter-national Journal of Geographic Information Systems, 1, 31–45 Read More