Importance of Maps to GIScience - Research Paper Example

Table of Contents 0 INTRODUCTION TO MAPS AND GISCIENCE 1 Developments of Maps 2.0 CARTOGRAPHY AND GIS 3.0 WEB, MAPS  AND GIS 3 Technology Advancements – GIS and Maps 4.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS 5.0 REFERENCES   1.0 INTRODUCTION TO MAPS AND GISCIENCE Goodchild introduced the term GIScience in the year 1992 to describe the basics of GIS technology.  These discussions dealt with the scope of a new branch of GIS and the obstacles in the way of its application of the technology. GIS is defined as the Science dealing with the interpretation and management of spatial information in scientific context, including associated technology, and implications of these for Commerce, Social life and the environment.   Information Analysis and interpretation of Data and transforming these into visual representations constitute among other things the Information Management function. Hardware and software that facilitate this process come under the category of associated methodology. Geographical Information and the GI system have tremendous applications to commerce and environment and naturally they will impact the society as a consequence. GIS now facilitates production of all kinds of Maps which serve as stimulants to visualized thinking. GI System therefore admirably fits in as Research on GI Science. Experts addressed the problem of developing visualization methods and techniques to present GI data interpret and synthesize them and explore them further, (MacEachren, 1995). This goes on further to assess the impact of these on the efficiency of problem solving. They further described the processes by which maps and graphics could be generated and the Computations systems to back these operations. The inter-connections between maps and GIScience and its associated steps in the process and the possible outputs also engaged many research works. Maps have the power to visually represent data, synthesize these and then explore the world. This is possible because of the ability to take selected data from the complex maze of facts and make visual presentation. The Discipline of Cartography has evolved a wide range of design guidelines which help in creating a map that best represents the desired results in terms of spatial patterns and inter-relationships. The traditional maps have helped in their own way in the above functions of map making. Yet, the advances made by GIS have revolutionized the way spatial information is synthesized, analyzed and explored. The numerous maps that needed to be made in the past for presenting different aspects of data pertaining to the same spatial area can now be overlaid on the same spatial outlay and interpreted. The paper will also study the advances made in the versatility of the map making process today, after the development of the Internet and the World Wide Web. Also, while recognizing the traditional role of maps in representation of data it must be pointed out that the maps should go further to be flexible and  facilitate exploration of the data underlying the maps. Therefore, in view of their ability to visualize the data and stimulate thinking about the geo-spatial patterns, maps are extensively used in the GI Science process. The field of operation for these maps is Geo-visualization. It is a loosely defined domain and it addresses the presentation, analysis and synthesis of geographical information in combination with other disciplines including Cartography. Scientific visualization, image analysis, information visualization and analysis of exploratory data are the other disciplines contributing to the advancement. 1.1 Developments of Maps With reference to the design of maps, self-made professional maps, particularly Paper Made Topographic Maps are the work of professionals and are very practical under various conditions. Such maps will still be continued to be produced in the future, even though the demand from the users is already exerting pressure on large Map Maker organizations to adopt a different modern outlook towards the market. There is more demand for Geo-data in order to be able to use them in combination with their own GIS software. As a result of these demand pressures, the National cartographic agencies are forced not only to supply updated digital data, but also abandon their resistance to changing the map making process and thinking. That has materially affected the way the Map - Making organizations organize their work, . With respect to the dimensionality of maps, restrictions in the collection and modeling of data and the techniques for presentation acted as obstacles in the way of representation of three dimensional real - world in maps of the past. The needs of the time were adequately met by the two-dimensional maps. The availability of a three dimensional map representation could help in querying the map for information that can facilitate better insight and decision making. For example, in urban setting where concurrently the available space is put to several uses, it may be essential to circumvent clash of interest. Three -dimensional maps would help in the process. Further, it may be necessary to overlay several three dimensional maps within the same space reference and view from different angles may also be necessary in order to facilitate the decision concerning all the objects in the map, (MacEachren, 1995). GI Science needs to study and analyze several features above the surface as well as below it. Studies have also pointed out the  need for overlaying of multiple attribute maps over the bas space map through a three dimensional map. The situation is further complicated by the use of hyper-spectral sensors, which may yield large volume of multi-variable data sets. The challenge now is to create data representation and visualization more advanced than the existing scientific visualization, or information visualization, (Tufte, 2001). Inclusion of even a single temporal component is bound to complicate things further. Animation appears to offer a way out, but may be conditional to the ability of the user to interact with this genre of map representation. 2.0 CARTOGRAPHY AND GIS Before the discipline of GIS arrived, Cartography held the prime position among mapping sciences like Remote Sensing, Photogrammetric, Geodesy and Surveying. These contributing sciences submitted individual maps from their perspective to the Cartographer who then integrated these maps into his over all scheme. GIS has eroded that prime position of Cartography. Cartography does not communicate with the other sciences any more. This role of coordination is now taken over by GIS and all the other sciences are seen as suppliers of information to the GIS. Cartography has maintained its role of supplier of Information, but has an additional function of supplying the data to GIS.  Cartography’s continued role has been recognized as essential for handling Geographical information  in all its aspects. Experts also state that eliminating Cartography and incorporating the data directly into the GIS can be cumbersome.GIS may thus be considered as a Management tool and a level for Visual Decision Support for Cartography research. Cartography is related to the demonstration of geographical facts, which can be either real or virtual in nature. Gao Jun stated a modern approach to maps at the Beijing Conference in 2003. He described mapping as a conversion of facts from one form to other. He further defines map as a product of mapping in geo-spatial perspective as are the geographic records and virtual realities. Maps were classified into two categories - visual maps, which were basically printed versions and screened maps and the virtual maps which were a digital display of geographic facts and information in the form of mapped reality images. Cartography is the study dealing with these maps and mapping, (Kraak, and Ormeling, 2003). The study of making maps and utilizing them for graphic communication purposes has been stated as Cartography by the Professor. The difference involving traditional analogue cartography and contemporary digital cartography is related. A comprehensive characterization of a map is a 2-Dimensional graphic depiction of the features of spatial relationships while GIS is a computer-based scheme for management, investigation, and demonstration of the spatial data. This can also be interpreted as cartography being the representation and GIS the analysis of spatial data and other relationships. When cartography was developed with the help of modern computer based systems, the result was generation of geo-referenced spatial digital records that were further utilized for the creation of  data structures for analysis to be presented in the form of maps and other geographical reports, (Kraak, and Ormeling, 2003). This system came to be then known as Geographical Information systems. Due to this interlink, Cartography and GIS are often confused with each other. Earlier GIS was often criticized for its poor cartographic quality and map creation potential, however, modern GIS systems include a collection of cartographic and map production facilities which have greatly assisted worldwide mapping agencies, publishers and other cartographic associations structure their map creation in a more effective and efficient manner. Moreover, the surfacing of Maplex (rule based cartography tool) and Map server technology (for GIS enabled maps) have together been utilized for publishing high quality maps and this authenticates the close link between GIS and cartography.  3.0 WEB, MAPS  AND GIS Web has become a common place for users to search and access millions of maps pertaining to almost every research area possible. Initially all the maps uploaded on the web were devoid of cartographic abilities, but recently, with the help of advanced web technology, there has been an increased integration of functionalities within such GIS products – maps. The assimilation of a modern web based GIS product - ArcIMS along with a power packed server side application like the ArcServer has given way to high quality and modern functionality web based mapping GIS applications and products. Many other web based mapping technologies have allowed to easily integrate GIS data and maps. Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) which is a form of data format can now be easily utilized in web based GIS products, (Campbell, 2001). Web mapping enabled GIS products (maps) were previously found only on desktop GIS applications, but now, they are becoming widely prevalent and significant for the users of the web.  Areas of interest like determining the shortest route on a map, planning of a suitable route, performing data entry on a map, and exploring a map through data analysis are some of the many web based applications that have been assimilated in GIS maps on the Internet for the  ease of web users. Moreover, many companies have resorted to providing such web-enabled GIS applications within their respective intranet facilities to avoid the high costs of deploying desktop GIS products. 3.1 Technology Advancements – GIS and Maps In the above sections, the importance of Maps in GIScience was studied, while giving a reference to cartography. This section will study the latest developments in GIS applications for the purpose of generating more efficient maps which ultimately strengthen the connection between maps and GIScience and insist that neither of the two can exist independently.   Placing texts within maps was a cumbersome task of a general map production process. Placement of texts also constituted problems in automating the map production process for long time. Recently launched GIS labelling tool – ESRI  Maplex has allowed for insertion of automated multifaceted labelling in maps. This allows easy labelling of even high quality cartographic maps and has significantly reduced the time consumed in generating topographic and atlas style maps, (Brewer, 2005).  Moreover, GIS recent advancements offer automated map production facilities along a set of cartographic rules without human interference. This has led to a high production turnover of maps with high quality content and presentation leading to high rise in demands. Effective map production and presentation is a result of well managed spatial and non spatial data. There are many applications which can only be utilized in GIS only if well managed spatial data is available and serious performance concerns arise if the spatial data is exceptionally segmented in its form, (Brewer, 2005). As a result, use of annotation in managing the spatial data has gained significance especially for cartographers. Geo-visualisation is an additional noteworthy development in cartography.  Two subjects of relevance to GIS are 3D visualisation  and the integration of high resolution imagery. Technology developments have enabled easy integration of high resolution remote sensing images and and digital aerial photography into maps that are today considered to be ‘high quality visual GIS products’. When incorporated with 3D facility, the application of imagery permits ‘photo-realistic’ maps that can be easily generated both in hard and soft forms, (Brewer, 2005). 4.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS The evolution of Cartography had taken centuries. By the twentieth century it had developed high degree of sophistication and perfection. The emergence of Computer technology has created opportunities and challenges for managing and interpreting data and changed the way maps are made. From a sophisticated art, Map Making has now become a specialized Science called Computer Cartography. The ability to handle and represent massive volumes of data has facilitated the creation, within a few minutes,  of a large number of maps with different views. A dramatic change that has come about is that Computer based Maps can now be made by anybody and without the help of the Cartographer artist, whose monopoly on maps has just disappeared. The situation calls for caution to ensure that Maps made through Computer Cartography are user friendly and effective. The GI Scientist is well assisted in his function of understanding the data and interpreting them, to facilitate problem solving, by the various maps and graphics. Maps have their established role of providing spatial data in the form of patterns and colors and facilitating deeper insight into the situation on ground. Abstract geophysical data are converted into visible representation, which stimulate thinking process. That process eventually led to the solution of problems. 5.0 REFERENCES   MacEachren, A.M, (1995) How maps work: representation, vizualization and design, New york, Guilford Press. Brewer,C.A, (2005) Designing better maps: A guide for GIS users, Red lands, ESRI Press Kraak, M.J, and Ormeling, F. (2003) cartography: Vizualizationof Geospatial data (2nd edition) Harlow, England Tufte, E.R. (2001) The Visual display of Quantative information, 2nd Edition, Connecticut, Graphic Press. Campbell, J. (2001) Map use and analysis (4th Edition), Boston, McGraw-Hill. Read More