Universal Management Across the Globe - Essay Example

?Individual Project Introduction In light of the concept of global cultural diversity, it is impossible to achieve universal management across the globe. Different people have got different cultures each of which interacts with their families, schools, religions and government in different ways. It is as a result of this fact that several organizational experts have underscored the importance of knowing and understanding each and every person’s individual culture before coming up with an organizational structure for the organization (Hill, 2008). In international business, it is interesting the very many diverse cultures that one can find in such forums; it is thus impossible that cultures from one’s own country can be carried and applied to the interaction with these other countries with the expectation of success (Hill, 2008). Management cannot be undertaken exclusively without a proper understanding of culture because it is only in this way that people from diverse cultures can truly work together. Part 1 Explain each model and how it can be used to investigate national preferences. Models of cultural dimension have been developed by several organizational experts namely Hofstede and Trompenaars who through a series of research studies developed dimensional perspectives that would enable people understand how to work with other people from different cultures and ensure that business is completed. The first dimension sought to allow for the comprehension of the two cultures of individualism and collectivism (Johnson & Turner, 2009). They stated that people from individualistic cultures had an inclination to choosing their own affiliations within the workplace and often preferring to work alone. Alternatively, those people from the collectivist cultures were often found working in varied groups aligning themselves to one another based on age and religion among other interests (Edwards & Rees, 2006). The second dimension sought to measure the element of how people within the organization perceived power differences (Johnson & Turner, 2009). There are those people who come from cultures where there are small power differences and are thus more inclined to a consultative and democratic method of handling issues. These types of people have been known to relate to their peers and others with equality and respect and when placed in subordinate positions, demand the right to contribute to decision making. In contrast, those from cultures with a large power distance have got great fear and respect for those in authority (Edwards & Rees, 2006). People have different ways of preparing themselves for unknown events; as such, the weak verses strong uncertainty avoidance was another dimension that Hofstede determined. Some people come from cultures where there are explicit rules on avoidance that allow them to cope with aspects of the unknown (Keeley, 2001). These people have got specific routines and structures for accomplishing tasks and in the context of employment, have got a much higher ability of sticking with one employer for a longer time that their counterparts. They have also been known to identify danger from a distance and often accredited for the development of safety regulations and guidelines within an organization. Those people who come from communities that have got weak uncertainty avoidance have got a more flexible and care free lifestyle with an inclination for engaging in life threatening and informal activities. Within the context of employment, these people often have an inclination to change not only their employers but also their employment status from time to time (Edwards & Rees, 2006). They are also more accommodative of other people’s ideas and concepts often allowing more than one concept to run simultaneously with another one allowing for variety of fresh thoughts, ideas and change within the organization. Various values are embedded into these cultures with emphasis being placed in different areas that vary from one culture to another. Sensitivity to masculinity and femininity determine whether emphasis is placed on either the quantity of life or quality of life depicting yet another dimension in Hofstede’s work (Hofstede, 2005). People from communities that place emphasis on male values are more oriented towards competition and assertiveness with great ambitions that allow for the accumulation of wealth and material possessions. Gender roles are also greatly emphasized in these cultures with clearly defined roles for both men and women. In these societies, women’s roles are more assertive and competitive as a way of ensuring that they survive in a society that is dominated by men; as a result, within the workplace, these women are also more assertive and can even work effectively in managerial positions. People from communities that place emphasis on feminine values have often been perceived to value the virtue of relationships and have a higher meaning for quality of life. Gender roles and identification are less dramatic within these people making it very easy for them to work with other people. Women’s roles in these societies are more oriented towards the adoption of modest and caring attitudes making them more careful and particular within their areas of work (Keeley, 2005). Different societies have got different levels within which they allow their members to indulge in varying basic and natural human desires (Trompenaars & Woolliams, 2003). People from indulgent cultures and societies have got a much higher tendency to allow themselves to freely enjoy life and fun; this can be beneficial as it allows for self content among these employees but can also be detrimental if it includes excessive indulgence that may interfere with work output. Those from cultures that exercise restraint often suppress their human desires through the use of social and religious norms that forbid them from indulging in these activities. The long term verses short term orientation dimension depicts the various time perspectives with which societies attach importance to the future (Trompenaars & Woolliams, 2003). Those people from communities that have got a long term orientation tend to place great emphasis on the future and as a result the present. They understand that their present actions have got a direct influence on the future outcome; as employees, they tend to plan their current actions carefully with a clear understanding of its implications on the future. Those with a short term orientation only have a clear understanding of the past which in turn affects their current actions. They only focus on the present seeking to attract whatever quick wealth that they can in the present time. As employees, they are more focused on protecting themselves and getting rich quickly which may at times make their current actions questionable (Edwards & Rees, 2006). What are the strengths and weaknesses of each model? Is there any inherent bias in each (if so, how might this be overcome)? Strengths The models and dimensions were developed through a series of empirical research methods that realized the use of a large sample size of employees from diverse cultures; this was done through the use of over 88,000 IBM managers in over sixty countries (Gannon, 2002). The results of this research also provides one of the very few frameworks for handling employees from varying cultures allowing for the reduction in the complexities of culture and its interactions (Steers, Sanchez-Runde & Nardon, 2010). Weaknesses Both these organizational experts have made it clear according to their analysis that culture is static; this is biased because culture is a phenomenon that has been known to change over the years (Steers, Sanchez-Runde & Nardon, 2010). It may even change in the split second that a person seeks employment within an organization making it very hard to make such generalizations. But according to Hofstede, the very essence of culture is its inability to change over time hence he still holds that these models can still be applied effectively to countries all over the world (Hofstede, 2003). This then brings the issue of its application to nations all over the world; this may be biased because there are different personalities within these countries and subsequently, the averages of these countries do not relate to the averages of individuals within them (Weaver, 1998). Biases may also have arisen as a result of the methods that were used to collect the information that was used to develop the models initially. The use of feedback forms and questionnaires may result in a biased output (Weaver, 1998). In what other ways might these models be improved to be more useful? As a result of the fact that the models were developed through the use of a limiting sample size, these models can be improved through the use of better sample sizes from a much larger varying population context from different parts of the world (Wyer, Chiu & Hong, 2009). This will be done in such a way that a representative sample is used from each country in the world to ensure that each culture is included in the study .The method of data collection will also be improved to allow for the use of better data collection methods that eliminate bias to acceptable levels to ensure that the information is complete. Other studies will also be done to update the data that currently exists; this will be done in light of the fact that cultures change from time to time thus allowing for more accurate conclusions to be made about a population. Critically discuss and compare the aforementioned models and additional research with those from the likes of Hall, Inglehart, Adler, the European values study and the GLOBE project etc. According to Hall (Weinshall, 1993), communication is an important element when it comes to the interaction with people of diverse cultures. In order to ensure that communication goes on in a smooth and effective manner, leaders must consider not only these cultural differences but also the predominating communication processes in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Meaning and context of a message are bound together and must often be interpreted in a related manner. He went further to identify that there are high context and low context cultures that differ in the way that information within these cultures is transmitted. In low context, communication is achieved through the use of explicit text and speech and as such all of the information that is meant to be conveyed must be in the text or speech otherwise communication may be compromised (Weinshall, 1993). This is done so as to make up for any information that is missing from the context and ensure that the correct information is relayed. In high context, communication is achieved through the use of a message that implies the meaning of a concept that the user wishes to convey. This form of implication is done through the use of body language in the form of gestures, eye movements, hand signs and even silence. In this form of communication, the message may contain very little text and speech with very minimal information being transmitted in the message; it is thus up to the other person to interpret the meaning of the remaining message as transmitted through the use of these gestures. In addition, Hall (Weinshall, 1993) also depicted the varying ways in which cultures utilize the concept of time depicting the presence of two types of individuals namely the monochronic and the polychronic individuals as relates to the use of time. People from monochronic cultures place emphasis on the concept of doing one thing at a time. They are only comfortable doing one task at a time and will only move to another task once they have completed that particular one; often perceiving the performance of several tasks as time wasting and distracting. People from polychronic cultures tend to be able to and prefer undertaking several tasks at once, making their own plans and meeting their deadlines in their own way (Jones, 2000). The GLOBE project was a research study carried out in over 60 countries to further develop the models that were developed by Hofstede and update his data (Klinicki & Kreitner, 2006). This project dealt with all the seven dimensions that he developed over the years while extending his sample size and number of countries to produce a more clear set of result that can be applied to people from all over the world. These research studies have even gone further to try and mend the conceptional deficits that were present in Hofstede’ work (Klinicki & Kreitner, 2006). Unfortunately, it has still not been able to provide insights on the various ways that people should act when faced with different situations or people. This is the case when dealing with individual people owing to the fact that generalizations across populations may not always be accurate. According to Ingelhart (Ingelhart & Wezel, 2005), there is cultural change that is slowly taking place manifested in the new set of cultures, beliefs and values that are slowly being depicted. These new cultures and values are affecting people’s religious, sexual, economic and political beliefs among others. This goes against Hofstede’s beliefs that culture is static and will remain as such over the years but over the years of modernization, the process of human development has allowed for cultural changes in gender equality and democracy (Klinicki & Kreitner, 2006). He states that modernization has given rise to the changes in sex roles among other cultural attitudes in over 70 nations that were included in his study. Select two different cultures and analyze the problems which may be caused for expatriates coming from one cultural background working in the other culture; Two contrasting cultures are those of the United States and Japan; the Western cultures and the Eastern cultures. These cultures exhibit different types of communication mechanisms; the low context and the high context as described by Hall (2005). The United States exhibits a very low context type of communication by stating within the speech or text message everything that they mean to say or do. Alternatively, Japan exercises a high context type of communication by stating very little within the speech and depicting more within the context of the message often using signs, symbols and gestures (like bowing) to have a deeper meaning. This creates a communication barrier between the two countries when they are placed in a round table meeting because certain gestures and words that are used by United States officials may be offensive to Japan, whose silence may be interpreted as rudeness by United States (Jones, 2000). The United States has got a faster rate of employee layoffs ass considered to America and this may make it hard for a Japanese manager working in America as he may not be able to ethically cope with this turnover. America may also focus its business objectives on the maximization of profits while Japan may focus on a trust oriented business, choosing to allow the organization to focus on creating mutually trusting relationship with its employees and partners (University of Winscosin, 2008). Then, discuss the realistic possibilities for expatriate managers coming from various cultural backgrounds in terms of motivating and leading staff. In order to motivate staff from different cultural backgrounds, expatriate managers should first of all acquire a basic understanding of the people’s cultural values and beliefs. Discussion forums can also be created so that people can introduce themselves and talk a bit about their culture, likes and dislikes including the manager himself (Selmer). Part 2: Explain how expatriates could be prepared on the basis of one or more relevant concepts from the course When preparing managers to work as expatriates, it important to inform them about the nature of these areas early in advance. The first step a director should take is show enthusiasm and motivation in the given area where he plans to send a manager before the employee can come to terms with the idea and accept to go the area willingly (Thomas, 2008). Directors who criticize areas as either being poorly equipped or unsafe do serve to motivate their employees and may make the managers have a negative attitude to the area even before they go. A clear and fair description of the area should also be given to the managers and their families so that they can clearly understand where they are going. Sensitivity training should also be done to make them familiar with the area and the culture of the people they are going to meet in those areas. This training will not only involve the tasks and duties that will be expected of the manager but also some interpersonal skills that will enable them interact effectively with the native people. Field trips will also be organized to the area as a method of pre-testing to allow the managers to get a glimpse of the areas they will be working at (Selmer). This will also enable them identify the list of requirements that they will need to take along with them and allow for a forum to discuss with the director, some of the perceived challenges that they have observed from a distance. This will also be integrated with counseling sessions for the managers to allow them accept and cope with the changes that they are about to encounter. Simulated environments can also be created to allow the managers to handle mock situations of some of the real situations that they will find in the field. The families of these managers will also be incorporated into the counseling sessions to enable them cope with the absence of a family member and some of the common methods of communication that can be used to reach their families. The use of benefits and rewards is also a common method of motivating employees especially those who are going into other countries to work in challenging environments as those of diverse cultures (Kotabe & Helsen, 2001). As such, performance rewards can be used to ensure that these managers are able to produce results at the end of the expected time period. Support to these managers should also be provided in terms of logistics, management and advice support on some of the various areas that they will be working. This will ensure that they are also comfortable with their working conditions making them able to perform. How could this support expatriates with various aspects of working within and managing organisations (e.g., cultural awareness, resolving ethical dilemmas) with making managerial decisions, communication and negotiations and conflict resolution)? An understanding of the culture of people within these countries enables managers to make more definitive, prompt and fair managerial decisions (Pang, 2003). Without a clear understanding of the culture, there will be slow decision making within these organizations hence reducing the productivity . Deadlines will also be met thus ensuring that operations within the organization are handled efficiently also allowing for expansion programmes. Training on the aspect of resolving ethical dilemmas can also ensure that conflicts are resolved in a speedy manner within the organization ensuring the customers are happy and content. Thus the support that is offered to expatriates is important in ensuring that there is efficient communication and operations within the organization. What are the requirements for working in multi-cultural teams and developing intercultural relationships? A clear understanding of the cultures and language of the people with whom one will be working is the most important requirement when working with multicultural teams (Thomas, 2008). This is important because without this understanding, there may be conflicts resulting from some of one’s actions and words that may be offensive the other cultures. This understanding will also allow the community to appreciate the new person as they will know that he or she has taken the time to get acquainted with them and as such has a genuine interest in helping them. Language will also be an important factor; being that language is a key factor in communication (Jones, 2000). The manager must have a clear understanding of the language used by the people. This will be coupled with a deep respect and appreciation for this culture; for the way the people do what they do has to also be present to prevent prejudices from being created within the multi-cultural setting. The manager must also have an edge for teamwork and employee motivation; with a vibrant personality that enables him to not only be easy to get along with but also allows him to get along with other employees. The manager must also understand the work ethics that are employed in that culture as seen among the Japanese whereby there are some modes of physical presentations that must be undertaken before business can take place. Certain levels of integrity and honesty must also be present within the manager to ensure that they can undertake business in a fair manner that will ensure that all members are satisfied. What lessons can be drawn from tutorials and discussion in class? It is important for managers to understand the varying cultures of the people within the country within which they have gone to work. This will ensure that they can understand the people and the reasons why they do some of the things that they do. It is also important to understand the work and business ethics within these countries to ensure that all operations by the manager are undertaken within these areas (Pang, 2003). Some countries are oriented towards corruption with a high corruption index while others have a low tolerance level for corruption; thus is important that these factors be understood by the managers. People will present and stand for ideas that are similar to what their country’s cultures and values stand for thus a country that has got strict rules on indulgence will have citizens who are less indulgent as compared to a country that allows for free indulgence. How can multi-cultural awareness be raised and the impact of stereotyping be decreased? Cultural interchange programmes can be initiated whereby members of one country go and visit members of another country so as to understand their culture (Weinshall, 1993). This will allow for exchange of information in a social manner between these two cultures creating an interactive atmosphere that will dispel any misconceptions about these cultures. Social interaction can also be achieved through the development and participation of a country in international film festivals and cultural shows that will allow them to display various elements of their culture to other countries all over the world (Jones, 2000). This enables people to understand and appreciate their culture. Education through the use of magazines, pamphlets, discussion forums among others can also be undertaken within various institutions within the country and overseas to allow other people to be involved in an understanding of their cultures. References Edwards, T. and Rees, C., 2006. 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Wyer, R., Chiu, C. and Hong, Y., 2009. Understanding culture theory, research and application. Psychology Press. Read More