Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution in Lancaster - Dissertation Example

? Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution in Lancaster A Review of Existing Literature Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution in Lancaster Nitrogen dioxide, being abrown foul smelling gas, is one of the principal greenhouse gas with the chemical formula NO2. It is emitted however, in the form of NOX which is a combination of both nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrogen monoxide (NO). The prime sources are burning fuels, for example , petrol or diesel in a car engine, or natural gas when it is burned at homes for central heating or at a major scale, in power stations (Harrison 2001, p. 179). Naturally, though, it is formed by the electrostatic reaction of lightening and by plants and other vegetation. Natural sources comprise only about 1% of the total emissions. With the increase in global warming around the world, incentives were undertaken to first create awareness and then to counter the causes of global warming and ozone depletion. United Nations took upon itself to encourage the respective governments of firstly the developed nations and then the developing ones. Similarly, the EU started funding researches and experiments to monitor the main causes of global warming, which were greenhouse gases, of which primarily, were oxides of nitrogen. The alarming statistics on the increase in NO2 concentration in U.K raised more urgent questions to be pondered over. What were the consequences of such high concentrations? Does it pose any immediate threat to the ecosystem in general and environment in particular? Hence researches and experiments were performed to delve further into the effects of the increased emissions of NO2 and our increasing dependence on non- renewable sources as our sole driving energy. The harmful effects, other than global warming, proved more concerning to the masses. The main effect on any individual exposed to high concentrations of NO2 was an increase in respiratory problems especially childhood asthma (Koenig 2003, p. 173). Child Health Study performed a research amongst children from 10 Californian communities using multiple indicators of exposure to NO2. The main indicator they made use of was traffic pollution in especially urban areas. The results proved that there was a co relation between the extent of exposure to NO2 and the occurrence of asthma or to the least, weasing amongst children. Further research explained this consensus (Ritz 2009). Nitrogen dioxide causes an inflammation in the lining of the lungs and reduces immunity to lung infections. This is exactly why children and aged people in particular are at high risk from exposure (Anzenbacher & Zanger 2012 p. 656). Not only does it cause lung problems but also increases the intensity of the nature of the illness. Other than health problems nitrogen dioxide is in itself, a potent threat to the ecosystem as well. Oxides of nitrogen promote ozone formation. It is a major contributor of acid rain and photochemical smog, both being very serious environment issues. Another major harmful effect of oxides of nitrogen is not in its gaseous form but in its element form (Inglezakis & Poulopoulos 2006, p. 22). Owing to the increasing agricultural industry, the use of fertilizers is inevitable. These nitrogenous fertilizers seep into the soil, only to be swept away by rains or flash floods into the nearby river, where the nitrogen boasts the algae population, thereby reducing the oxygen concentration. As a result all other vegetation and species of fish are fatally affected. Nitrogen dioxide reacts in the presence of air and ultraviolet light to form two very harmful compounds, ozone and nitrogen oxide. The NO then reacts with free radicals in atmosphere to produce NO2 again. Thus each molecule of NO2 has the ability to produce ozone molecules a lot of times. Also one molecule of NO2 has a very long lifetime because of its inability to absorb light photons. Ozone is an invisible gas with levels highest when it is warm. It also affects the lungs. Studies in animals claim that ozone damages the cells of lining the passages of the lungs, causing inflammation and swelling (Harris & Lundgren 2008, p. 72). In 1990, the State Air Resources Board issued a report stating that normal exercising individuals are at a lesser risk then the children and the aged. When the concentration reaches 15 ppm a health advisory is issued and when it exceeds 20 ppm, a first stage smog alert is called (Graham 1995). In 1952, a five day long period of photochemical smog occurred in London due to increased levels of nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere which caused black smoke to prevail all across London creating concern amongst the environmentalists. It resulted in 3000 deaths with prime victims over the age of 50 (Reitze 2001, p. 36). The threshold value in atmosphere of nitrogen dioxide is not indicated. The acute effects from human exposure studies suggest that concentrations vary in the range of several hundred ug/m3 and higher. The current exposure in Europe is well below this range. However, for the effects of more serious nature, the threshold is complicated by the formation of NO2 and secondary pollutants. A few selected studies show association of NO2 with all-cause mortality was positive. The SAPALDIA study found evidence of serious respiratory issues in adults in Switzerland. These effects were recorded at the mean range of 30ug/m3 . However, fairly accurate results cannot be established because of the difficulty of separating NO2 from other secondary pollutants. A number of other studies suggest that exposure to NO2 accompanied with other pollutants have more adverse effects on humans. The combination of NO2 with O3 showed a reduction in cardiac activity (Hester 1998, p. 526). The Department For Environment, Food And Rural Affairs research shows that acidic content of Britain’s water has been reduced on average to a half in the last 15 years. 22 most sensitive water sites were examined by scientists who concluded that the algae and invertebrates are showing signs of recovery. 3 of the water sites have shown the reoccurrence of Juvenile Brown Trout which disappeared in 1988 . In 1995 , an ERS-2 satellite with its Gome instrument was launched for monitoring atmospheric pollutants under NASA. This result showed that nitrogen dioxide levels have decreased in the US and Europe but increased in parts of Asia. This change in Asia is attributed to an increase in use of fossil fuels in developing nations. The Sentinel 4 and 5 missions under Europe Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Programme will continue to monitor the troposphere changing levels of nitrogen dioxide keeping check on the increase or decrease of the concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (Gottwald & Bovensmann 2011, p. 15). The European Commission refused to allow Britian more time to reduce exhaust emissions. Forty of 43 U.K zones exceeded the limit of NO2 emissions. So, 12 cities of U.K decided to ban heavy polluting traffic. Lancaster City Council has declared one monitor over parts of central Lancaster and one in Cornforth. Both have been declared for one of the national air quality objectives: the annual average concentration of Nitrogen Dioxide. The Lancaster council, for the past 25 years started monitoring air pollution in its borough using national networks and in collaboration with the Environmental Health Services measured concentration of nitrogen oxides in different localities of Lancaster. The Environment Protection team monitors the air quality on monthly basis, at 45 prime locations of Lancaster, thus providing the residents with reliable information about the air they breathe and its possible consequences. There are two main methods of monitoring air pollution which are employed by the respective authority: A passive sampling method, which is non automatic and a more technically defined; and expensive continuous analyzers, which run automatically. Lancaster city council has 45 passive samplers working on a regular basis. Its findings are passed to DEFRA for further analysis. At Wall Street Lancaster, a continuous analyzer is installed which automatically takes the surrounding air, records the information and transmit it wirelessly to the central computer operating it (Lancaster City Council). Nitrogen dioxide mapping was also improved upon by the help of GWR (geographically weighted regression). A study performed by Jennifer Mckinley proved GWR to be of immense value in mapping nitrogen dioxide accurately as concentrations can vary over certain distances. Air Quality Expert Group (AQEG) published its first report stating, that the nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the United Kingdom have declined since the issue was first given attention in 1990s. The decrease was mainly attributed due to increase in use of diesel and use of environment friendly technologies introduced in transport systems like catalytically regenerative traps which were recently introduced in buses at London providing inspiration to other cities in U.K where buses are main public transport option for the common man. A survey report of Lancaster air quality in 1990 is as follows: (Expressed in tons of pollutant emitted) Nitrogen dioxide: Mobile Sources 14,460 Area Sources 2,275 Point Sources 6,963 All sources 23,699 The scientists of university of Lancaster put forward a revolutionary suggestion of making the city "green", not only in an attempt to make the city environment friendly but also as a simple yet profoundly useful step in eliminating the harmful pollutants from the air, especially nitrogen oxides; thus, followed an exhaustive plantation process, not only in allocated forests but also alongside every street and highway of Lancaster. Plants cleanse the air by removing nitrogen dioxide and other greenhouse gases to target the most significant problem in developing countries. It was estimated that a 30% decrease in pollution could be achieved if this process continued with zeal and dedication. The Common Agricultural Policy in 1992 aimed its core policies to prevent water pollution by nitrate fertilizers leaching into the freshwater rivers. This was done so by reducing the use of nitrogenous fertilizers. The main policy was to switch the payments of farmers from yield based to area based hence encouraging them to cut down fertilizers by cutting down their need for increased yield. CAP also introduced Agri-environment Regulation which allocated certain amount of money to those farmers who took part in making use of environmental friendly practices, having both long term or short term benefits. In industrial sector, adipic acid manufacturers in Germany, France and the U.K to make use of abatement technology to reduce emissions by 95% to 99% (DGXI 1998). Also emissions at the WTE Facility at Lancaster are under the stated limit with a compliance of 99.7 % in the past 10 years. Their control methods are ingenious. Aqueous ammonia and hydrated lime is directly injected into the combustion chamber of furnace to control nitrogen oxide emission. Also oxidizing nitrogen oxide by the use of hydrogen peroxide can allow water to absorb it. The resulting nitric acid can be collected and sold to customers for extra profits. Also, when using fuel in combustion, nitrogen can be removed by reacting with oxygen deliberately to eliminate the nitrogen before the fuel is used. Pulverized coal can be used instead of normal coal to minimize the nitrogen oxide released on combustion. Water injection method is by far the cheapest method used by industries in gentrification process. Hot steam is injected into the combustion producing nitric acid (LCSWMA 2011). Solar powered cars are an innovative technology as a step forward in countering air pollution. Germanys leading Car Company, BMW specializes in creating a range of sporty cars, attracting its environment friendly users with new inventions like electrically powered cars which run on battery powered by electricity with no compromise in the quality specifications of the car. In fact, the main highlight of this invention is that it is a onetime investment with little running costs, at least not as high as that of petrol and diesel. Environment friendly housing projects have also attracted the attention of the masses. Comprising of solar powered electrification and utilities like lights, fans and water heaters. This endeavor minimizes the use of nitrogen oxidize emitting fuels, petrol and natural gas. Alternating the use of coal in industrial processes with an increasing use of diesel also helped curb the high levels of nitrogen dioxide emissions. According to the European environment agency (EEA), air pollution from industries costs Britain alone, 3.4 billion to 9.5 billion pounds a year. So industries of the E.U also embarked on finding the best ways to reduce emissions but keep on increasing their yields as well. Scrubbers were introduced to remove waste gases from the exhaust systems using dry alkali to neutralize the acid gas pollutant. Nitrogen oxide is broken down using very high temperatures. Gastification is still a developing technology. It eliminates some toxins in coal before it is released into the atmosphere. The gas produced is used to drive a generator. Although a promising development, it is difficult to popularly implement as the technology is very expensive. On the other side of the Arctic Ocean, U.K s neighbor, U.S.A has also made considerable efforts into playing their role in curbing the levels of gaseous nitrogen oxide levels in the atmosphere. EPA has encouraged car companies to manufacture hybrid and solar powered cars and cars which have the most advanced catalytic converters for the common man. It is currently in collaboration with the fuel companies to promote the production of cleaner fuels. In industrial sector, EPA has regulated the 1990 Clean Air Act , aiming at both large and small sources, giving them the flexibility to reduce the harmful emissions in whatever way they want, as long as they keep below the limit prescribed by EPA. On domestic level EPA, suggested steps to reduce exposure to nitrogen dioxide at homes mainly because average levels at homes are double to that of the outdoors. Proper ventilation was made a key suggestion. Vents especially in kitchens were made compulsory. Wood stoves only certified by EPA emission standards were recommended. Leaks in central heating systems were to be thoroughly checked and immediately repaired. EPA National Ambient Air Quality Standards list 0.053 ppm as the average 24-hour limit for NO2 in outdoor air (Gusting 2003, p. 45). China, the leading economical nation of the world, also being the leading greenhouse gases emission nation of the world has also spent billions on countering air pollution especially nitrogen dioxide pollution. Concentrating its investment on nuclear power, China has provided its people with unlimited supply of electricity through installation of nuclear power plants. The most environment friendly power station helped to cut down its nitrogen oxide emission immensely. Alternating natural gas with electrically run appliances, especially heating appliances, also managed to minimize the use of natural gas. The transport was made compact and environment friendly. The same kind of alteration for the major power generating fuel was encouraged by Germany when it endorsed developing nations like Pakistan and India to utilize its non renewable energy resources, in their case, solar power. Australia has introduced new policies to counter the increasing concentrations of NO2. The government sponsored implementation of stricter vehicle emission standards. They developed a National Environment Protection Measure for diesel to improve the performance of diesel vehicle. They sponsored the development of alternative fuel, in their case, biofuels. Australia’s major cities developed a pollution forecast system to constantly keep check on the rising levels of pollutants. A very innovative implementation was the promotion of bicycle use by installing cycle stands around malls, through CycleConnect. The National Environment Protection Measure for Ambient Air Quality aims to keep nitrogen dioxide in outdoor air well below 0.12 ppm over an hourly period by 2008 although these levels have never been exceeded in any Australian capital since early 1990s (Sinha 2007). Similarly, Hong Kong is facing the same pollution problem. The high nitrogen oxide levels constantly cause regional smog. To meet the Air Quality Objectives, it has implemented the Air Pollution Control Ordinance strictly controlling emissions not only from industrial and transport industries but also on domestic level. In power sector, installation of any new coal power station was prohibited from 1997, encouraging use of diesel and natural gas. However, with the positive outlook of efforts done to curb NOX emissions, a recent study suggests something on the contrary side. A study sponsored by Defra and conducted by Dr.David Carslaw, Sean Beevers, Emily Westmoreland and Martin Williams in collaboration with colleagues from AEA and University of Leeds. A remote sensing technique developed by U.S.A takes measurements of emissions of thousands of cars daily. Although the legal limits of emissions have been increasing, the emissions recorded especially from diesel fueled cars have not been in compliance. The NO2 emissions in particular have remained fairly constant since the past 10-15 years. In fact the use of oxidation catalysts and other treatments for the diesel exhaust systems of cars have led to increase in emissions of NO2. This is the sole reason why U.K is failing to meet the E.U certified emissions limit (Londonair 2011). REFERENCES HARRISON, R. M. (2001). Pollution causes, effects and control. Cambridge, Royal Society of Chemistry. http://www.knovel.com/knovel2/Toc.jsp?BookID=1195. KOENIG, J. Q. (2000). Health effects of ambient air pollution: how safe is the air we breathe? Boston, Kluwer Academic RITZ, B. (2009). Traffic-related air pollution and asthma in economically disadvantaged and high traffic density neighborhoods in Los Angeles County, California. Sacramento, Calif, California Environmental Protection Agency, Air Resources Board, [Research Division. http://bibpurl.oclc.org/web/40393. ANZENBACHER, P., & ZANGER, U. M. (2012). Metabolism of drugs and other xenobiotics. Hoboken, N.J., Wiley-VCH. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9783527630905. INGLEZAKIS, V. J., & POULOPOULOS, S. G. (2006). Adsorption, ion exchange and catalysis design of operations and environmental applications. Amsterdam, Elsevier. http://www.engineeringvillage.com/controller/servlet/OpenURL?genre=book&isbn=9780444527837. HARRIS, E. S., & LUNDGREN, O. (2008). Save the Earth science experiments: science fair projects for eco-kids. New York, Lark Books. GRAHAM, J. (1995). Reform of risk regulation: Achieving more protection at less cost.Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal. 1, 183-206. REITZE, A. W. (2001). Air pollution control law: compliance and enforcement. Washington, DC, Environmental Law Institute. HESTER, R. E. (1998). Air Pollution and Health. New York, Springer. GOTTWALD, M., & BOVENSMANN, H. (2011). SCIAMACHY exploring the changing Earth's atmosphere. Dordrecht, Springer.   "Background to Air Pollution Measurement and Monitoring." Lancaster City Council a€?. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Dec. 2012. Available at < http://www.lancaster.gov.uk/air-quality/background-air-pollution-measurement-monitoring/> (1998). Options to reduce nitrous oxide emissions: (final report) ; a report produced for DGXI. LCSWMA (2011). FACILITIES: Waste-to-Energy Facility. Lancaster Country Solid Waste Management Authority. Available at < http://www.lcswma.org/lcswma_facilities_wte.html> GUSTIN, J. F. (2003). The facility manager's handbook. Lilburn, Ga, Fairmont Press. SINHA, K. C., & LABI, S. (2007). Transportation decision making principles of project evaluation and programming. Hoboken, N.J., John Wiley. LondonAir (2011). NOx and NO2 trends - draft report. Environmental Research Group, King's College London. Available at: http://londonair.org.uk/london/asp/news.asp?NewsId=Defrareport&StartIndex=131 Read More