History of Water Management Technologies - Research Paper Example

? Water Management Technologies Introduction The history of water management is as old as the history of humankind. Most of the civilization in the human history has evolved around bountiful rivers whether it is the Mesopotamia around the Tigris and Euphrates or the Indus Valley civilization around the Indus River. Water history and its management are of a paramount importance to us. Water history gives us a clue as to how water management policies and technologies overtime transformed the states and life of the people. Stepwells of Rajasthan in India are embodiment of such great traditions in managing the water resources at local level. The paper is an attempt to explore how and what kind of water management technologies evolved over several centuries since the time of early civilization. Early Water Management Devices– Saqiya, Noria, Qanat The beginning of agricultural practices that started after a long period of hunting and foraging has a lot to do with evolving of numerous water management technologies. The agriculture as a means for subsistence led to the digging of canals, wells, drains. That further necessitated the discovery of numerous water-lifting devices as community-based agriculture further expanded in the different parts of world. That is how the devices such as saqiya and noria came into existence. Qanats built during 500 BCE is an indication that how water technologies started taking forefront in developing agriculture as a means for subsistence. Water Management during Mesopotamian Civilization Initial efforts to control flow of water were done in early civilization of Mesopotamia and Egypt. The remains of those canals can still be found. It should be noted that every city of the Sumer and Akkud dating 4000 years BCE had a canal getting water from the Euphrates River. Mari had several cisterns and had extended collection system to harness rain water. Habuba Kebira (modern Turkey) had Terracotta pipes for transporting water. The shaduf as a water-lifting device from one level to another had its origin in Mesopotamia which later spread to Greece and other parts of Europe. The shaduf usually provides lift of 3 meter and can deliver 500-2500 liters per day (Mays a) Water Management by Indus-Valley Civilization Mohenjo-Daro as the part of Indus Civilization was built around 2450 BCE. The city had 700 brick-lined wells and it was located in the semi-arid region. The construction of their bath platforms did indicate that water consumption was huge. During those times the city was provided with effluent drains made of brick masonry and stretched along one side of the street with removable covers made of wooden boards or loose bricks. Wall drain chutes were employed so that effluent could flow in a catchment basin. Water management was so elaborate that they had bathrooms in their houses and sewer system in streets. That was perhaps the oldest well-built water collection and disposal system in operation (Mays b). Canals in the Americas – Innovative Water Managementways The earthen canals in Americas are found dating back 6000 to 4500 years in the Central Andean Cordillera region on the banks of Rio Nanchoc River and the canals were used for irrigation to grow peanuts, coca, and cotton crops. Canals in Mesoamerica go back to the time of 1200 BCE. Water wells in San Marcos, dams, reservoirs, drains and canals were the part of water management system in Morelos, Oaxaca (Dillehay). Water Management by Qanats Qanat fulfilled the need of irrigation in ancient Persia. They are basically underground tunnel taking advantage of gravity flow from the higher elevations to the lower plains. Qanats are equipped with the vertical shafts to provide for lighting and air circulation. The longest (71 kilometer) and oldest (more than 3000 years old) qanat is found at the ancient city of Zarch in Persia. Even today, more than 30,000 qanats are in operation in Iran. The qanat technology spread during Persian rule. In different civilizations, it came to be known with different names such as Karez in Afghanistan and Pakistan, Falaj in UAE, Kanerjing in China. Qanats were successful because they operated within the natural limits and in a sense they were self-regulating as opposed to modern irrigation techniques which supply more water for a given period but tend to decline overtime (Mays b). The Water-Wheels and Treadwheel The water-wheels are quite ancient. Water-wheel had its origin in India. Later on Syrian water-wheels got prominence in its use to lift and transfer water from wells and rivers. One of them was known as water-wheel driven by animals. In local language, it is known as saqiya or noria. A saqiya is a device made of chain with buckets and noria is a device moved by water. Water wheel was a low-cost device with clean technology without affecting environment (Miranda). Treadwheel first appeared in Egypt and it was used to raise water from the sea when Roman army was moving through Alexandria. Treadwheels were extensively used by Greeks and Romans for dewatering jobs (Miranda). The Archimedes’ screw–a Water Lifting Device The Archimedes' screw was a great invention made as early as third century BC managing the water at smaller scale. The device was put to the use for irrigation in the Nile delta region. Subsequently, it spread to other parts of the world. Surprisingly, the device is still in operation at Schermerhoorn in Netherlands pumping water with vertical height of 1 meter (Archimedes’ screw). Source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/Fluids/Archimedes_Screw/Archimedes_Screw.html Water Management in Egypt More than 5000 years ago, Egyptians began practicing water management techniques for growing crops. It all started with natural irrigation then employing artificial irrigation to the lift irrigation making use of shaduf, Archimedes Screw, waterwheel or saqiya. The main objectives were to control floods and deploy proper irrigation techniques (Mays b). Water Management in China The Grand Canal is the greatest engineering project of ancient China, a longest canal in the world. The Grand Canal connects Beijing city in the north to Hangzhou town in the south. The canal is 1795 kilometers long and provided with 24 locks. China has a wide range of climates. The frequent floods and droughts caused the creation of several water control projects such as ponds, canals, wells. Canals served the purpose of irrigation providing stability in the plains. Hilly areas were full of ponds. Dujiangyan irrigation system in Sichuan Province, built in the third century BCE, provided great impetus to agriculture at local level. Hong Canal is considered to be the first man-made canal that linked the Huaihe River and Yellow River. Its construction began as early as 361 BCE (Yinke). Rice growing was practiced in the Yangtze River Basin about 6,000 years back where many ancient paddy fields were discovered in Hunan and Jiangsu Province. These paddy fields were associated with wells, ditches, canals, and ponds. A UNESCO world Heritage site, the Chengdu basin of central Sichuan, has been found making use of dams and sluices for channeling water from the Minjiang River. In China, Canals were in use for trade purposes during fifth century BCE. During Tang Dynasty a network of canal was widely in use for irrigation and transportation purposes (Yinke ). Rapid Advances in Water Technologies Early efforts that were characterized by low-tech, labor-intensive irrigation practices of water management soon catapulted into much improved and powerful technological ways in the new world. Large dams that were constructed in US and elsewhere revolutionized the irrigation practices and increased the grain production many fold. Bid dams served the purpose of huge water bodies for irrigation, drinking and myriad of other water uses. Applications of water technologies for irrigation, industry, sewerage and sanitation changed the ways and imparted a new outlook to the modern world. Industrialization and rising population throughout the world increased the water consumption so much so that now water has become a scarce commodity. The modern water age started since the 1960s, when water management became local, regional, national and international phenomena (Smith). Many Water technologies related to irrigation, industry, sanitation, sewerage treatment came into existence which brought new realms of modernity and prosperity. Droughts in many part of the world are not simply a matter of reduced rainfall but it is an outcome of many modern day phenomena such as car washing, showers, huge swimming pools, lush green lawns among many other things. Clearly, the new water technologies stress more on the water conservation so as to reduce the consumption in irrigation and industries and improve the quality of water for potable purpose to increase the health standards of the common masses. River Basin Management in Europe Wih the advent of science and technology, irrigation, flood control, environment protection, management of river basins for hydropower took the stronghold and spearheaded integrated water basin management enacting international water laws. European Water Framework Directive (WFD) is an outcome of need to have river basin management plans so as to provide sustainable use of water across Europe. The directives are applicable to groundwater, surface water including rivers, lakes, and streams. The WFD directives expect members to achieve a 'good' status in reference to each water body. The member states need to prepare a plan for each of the river basin in its territory (JNCC). Drip irrigation, water recycling, waste water treatments are prominent areas of renewed emphasis to use the water most efficiently and in turn reduce the consumption of fresh water. Drip Irrigation – a Novel Water Conservation Mechanism Drip irrigation is capable of reducing the water consumption and provides an efficient way of water management in the agriculture which consumes large amount of water at most of the places. Drip irrigation in Israel covers 66 percent of crop fields while it is just 13 percent in the California state of US. The newer ways of drip irrigation that are being invented has now one-tenth of the capital cost compared to the conventional drip irrigation systems. Since 1950, Israel has been successful in reducing irrigation waste water by 84 percent. Israel also treats municipal sewage water and reuses it to the extent of 30 percent for crop production and trying to recycle it up to 80 percent by the year 2025. The Israeli government has removed all subsidies to provide water for irrigation so that people starts conserving it as much as possible. As a new water management practice, the government has decided to grow only fruits, vegetables and flowers instead of growing wheat and grains so that water could be conserved (Miller). Several ways of reducing and managing irrigation waste water have been employed in the water scare countries such as Israel and Syria. They can be described as per the following. 1. Irrigation with treated waste water only 2. Lining canals to avoid seepage 3. Not growing water thirsty crops in dry areas 4. Based on soil moisture watering needs to be done 5. Reducing evaporation losses by irrigating only in night Reducing irrigation water waste is a necessity for certain nations where water is scarce. Industrial Waste Water Recycling Large amount of water is currently being used to flush household and industrial wastes. If this continues then in next 40 years entire stock of fresh water will be used just to dilute the waste that will be produced. As a solution to this, following measures are being taken as a water conservation practice (Miller). 1. Manufacturing processes are being modified such that there is less fresh water consumption; 2. Recycling of water is done as far as possible; 3. Only those plants for landscaping are cultivated that require little water; 4. Household water after treatment is being used for watering lawns and other non edible irrigation in the countries like Syria and Israel. Water Purification Technologies Sand Filtration Water filtration and purification efforts started with Francis Bacon in 1627 to purify sea water to make it potable. Though he failed to produce potable water, but he put the idea rolling for future generations. In subsequent years with the invention of microscope, scientists could find living organisms in the water used for drinking. John Snow, a British scientist, could find the cause of cholera deaths in the city of London to such living organisms that he observed through microscope. That was the first instance perhaps to conclude that visual clarity of water did not ensure the purity of water. It was also noticed that cholera deaths were less where sand filters were installed. This initiated the formulation of series of water regulations by Municipal Corporation in subsequent years. From the era of slow sand filters, American scientists could improve upon to provide for rapid sand filters as a means for more efficient filters. Successful sand filtration technology that resulted into the considerable decrease in waterborne diseases cleared the passage for Metropolis Water Act of 1852. This act made it mandatory to treat water in the city of London by sand filtration (The History of Water Filters). Use of Chlorine in Municipal Water Treatment Plant John snow, a British scientist, was first to use chlorine to treat cholera-causing water. Based on this, the administration of the city of London started using chlorine to disinfect the water that subsequently resulted into the significant decrease in deaths from typhoid. The use of chlorine for the treatment of water became so popular that Life magazine called it as the most valuable public health advances in human history. Most of the municipal water treatment facilities in the world today use chlorine as a most potent disinfecting agent to treat the potable water (The History of Water Filters). Protecting Surface Water With the progress of 20th century more and more municipalities started installing water treatment plants to provide pure water to their people. It became a fundamental right for a common man in the developed world to have clean and pure water. With the rapid industrialization, environmental concerns became a key issue and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) came into existence. The Clean Water Act of 1972 came into being due to generation of industrial waste and rampant use of pesticides in the agriculture. The act aimed at protecting surface water sources keeping environment clean and safe (The History of Water Filters). The clean Water Act of 1972 ensured that every city in the US install water treatment plant so as to provide clean water to its citizens by 1985. The act spearheaded the investment in environment-friendly waste management technologies. This act ensured that rivers became free of industrial wastes and other polluting steams (The History of Water Filters). Home-based Reverse Osmosis System as an Ultimate Water Purifier Further advances in the water treatment technologies created the market for home based treatment plants that addressed the issues related to the dissolved impurities in the water such as high total dissolved solids, pesticides, organic substances and any other harmful substances. Such water purifying system are based on the principles of reverse osmosis which essentially filter or reduce the concentration of sodium, calcium, chloride, sulfates, hardness forming substances, lead, or any other organic compounds in the water. The most heartening part is that they can filter out even pathogens, bacteria from the water and thus provide non chemical type filtration and treatment process to get rid of most of the physical and chemical impurities. The following diagram shows the compactness of reverse osmosis unit being used in modern homes (Compact RO Systems). Source: http://www.pure-pro.com/compact_ro.htm Conclusion Water has always been elixir for human life and has been most precious and critical resource. It has always been intimately associated to our cultural development so much so that it has been a symbol of rituals and religious beliefs. Water Heritage sites remind us about our common water legacy and the solutions provided by our ancestors to overcome water scarcity. Their innovative approaches inspire us even today for a strategic planning and in managing our scarce water resources for a great cause of human existence on this planet. Works Cited 1. Archimedes’ screw, Web. 5 April 2012. 2. Compact RO Systems, Web. 5 April 2012. 3. Dillehay, T., Eling, H. Jr. and Rossen, J., Preceramic irrigation canals in the Peruvian Andes, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2005. Vol. 102, No. 47 4. History of Water Filters, Web. 5 April 2012, 5. JNCC, Water Framework Directive, Web. 5 April 2012, 6. Mays, Larry (a). Integrated Urban Water Management: Arid and Semi arid regions, Taylor & Francis, The Netherlands, 2009. 7. Mays, Larry (b). Ancient Water Technologies, Springer, London, 2010 8. Miranda, Adriana. Water Architecture in the Lands of Syria: The water-Wheels, Amazon, UK, 2007. 9. Miller, George & Scoot Spoolman, Sustaining the earth, Cengage Learning, CA, USA, 2009. 10. Smith, Norman. A History of Dams, Seacaucus, N.J., Citadel Press, 1972. 11. Yinke, Deng. Ancient Chinese Inventions, Cambridge University Press, New York, 2011. Read More