Effects of Teaching Styles on the Accuracy of Written English - Research Paper Example

The Effects of Teaching Styles on the Accuracy of Written English as a Second Language among Secondary School Students Name Course Lecturer Institution Date 1. Research Topic The Effects of Teaching Styles on the Accuracy of Written English as a Second Language among Secondary School Students 2. Literature Review 2.1 Teaching Methods Different researches have been carried in attempts to establish the effectiveness of different teaching methods in teaching students. The methods that will be reviewed in this part of the study include the grammar-translation method, the communicative approach, and the eclectic method. 2.1.1 The Grammar-Translation Method According to Drew and Sorheim (2004), the grammar-translation method is one whereby a student learns the reading of texts, as well as grammatical rules in the language of interest and then translates them from that language to their native language. The scholars laid great emphasis on written language, while oral language was given less attention. Drawing from Howatt (1984), the grammar-translation method emerged from Germany towards the end of the 18th century and spread fast to other regions at the beginning of the 19th century. During that time, the main aim of using dictionaries to translate and learn grammar was to enable people to interpret literature. These methods were appropriate only for self-study and not for teaching in a classroom. Accordingly, basic framework for translation and learning grammar was implemented to meet schools’ new requirements and make the learning of language easier (Howatt 1984). The grammar-translation method was aimed at developing accuracy rather than fluency. In this case, accuracy refers to lack of errors. Lightbown and Spada (1999) argue that, the grammar-translation method is the most utilized approach in the world, and a big percentage of people learn a second language effectively based on this teaching method. A number of learners of foreign language will succeed regardless of the method used to teach a language. However, the research by Lightbown and Spada (1999) shows that, the grammar-translation method’s language learners can sometimes be frustrated since they do not have the opportunity to put their knowledge in practice. This might make them incapable of communicating in normal discussions. 2.1.2 The Communicative Approach Lightbown and Spada (1999, p.15) maintain that, the innatist language acquisition theory inspired the communicative approach, which was suggested by Noam Chomsky in response to the behaviourist theory. According to Chomsky (1959), children are naturally programmed for language in a similar way as their programming for walking, and that their learning is based on their imitation to the environment. Reinforcement, natural inquisitiveness and casual observation, together with a strong imitation tendency are important aspects in relation to language acquisition (Chomsky 1959, p.29). Harmer (2001) observes that, the communicative approach has a close relation to the idea that “learning of language will take care of itself” through a lot of practice. The method stresses interaction as a technique, as well as, a reason for learning a given language. It is highly important to create language and communicate well than being correct. Lehmann (1999) criticized the communicative method by arguing that, focusing on communication and pursuing fluency in current decades might have resulted in accuracy’s neglect. In her study of Norwegian students, Lehmann established that the students lacked a good command of English required in working life and higher education although they might imagine that themselves. Among the major reasons for this is that the teaching of English in Norwegian schools emphasizes oral communication. This leaves students with less knowledge on literary devices along with failure to focus on their errors effectively. Lehmann proposes that, students’ development diversity ought to be integrated in future curriculum. Although she does not support the old behaviouristic theory, Lehmann point at current research that has introduced conscious learning, which is based on accuracy and form back in the educational field (Lehmann 1999, p.213). If this approach is used by proficient teachers, it may result in the development of learners’ individual potential. Harmer (2001, p.86) adds that, the communicative method is impossible to get rid of as communicative undertakings have become established in classrooms across the globe. 2.1.3 The Eclectic Method It has been possible to assess the behaviour of teachers owing to the mounting interest in classroom research recently. According to different researches, teachers use different teaching methods. Drawing from Wagner (1991), the eclectic method has elements of other teaching methods including the grammar-translation method and the communicative approach. It includes comprehending language, putting it into practice, and generating it. Thus, the eclectic method is deemed the best by most teachers. Lightbown and Spada (1999, p.151) argue that, due to the disparities in learners’ characteristics, the challenge is finding a balance between form-focused and meaning-based activities. 2.2 Error Correction and Provision of Feedback In teaching a second language, correction of errors is an important issue. Many researchers have differed on its impact and great controversy continues as to if correction of errors and provision of feedback assists learners of second language to improve on their accuracy. Harmer (2001) argues that, correction comprises of two distinct stages. In the first place, the teacher indicates to the student the mistake made by the latter, and then assists her or him to correct it. Hammer differentiates between providing feedback on communicative and creative writing and on workbook exercises. Edge (1989) further argues that, the most crucial decision that the teacher constantly has to make relates to whether to make correction or not, as well as judging the mistakes to correct. Edge (1989) believes that, not every mistake ought to be corrected, such as those made during conversations. At times fluency ought to be promoted and that should not be time for making corrections unless the message is interfered with. However, flourishing communication is dependent on a given accuracy level. The reality that a bigger percentage of examinations are based on the students’ accuracy in their writing is important as well. In the view of Edge (1989), the teacher must always remember that making corrections is done to assist learners to be more correct and to continue towards absolute accuracy of Standard English. Making the students aware about correctness assists them to be more accurate. Krashen (1982, p.11) opposes Edge’s (1989) view. Based on evidence, for language acquisition among children, correction of errors does not impact acquisition to a great extent. Krashen (1982) believes that, correction of errors has no or little impact on subconscious language acquisition, but he acknowledges that correction of errors may have an impact on being conscious on a rule. Nevertheless, Krashen considers correction of errors as a solemn mistake, since it has negative effects on students. He believes that correction of errors could lead to students avoiding hard constructions and attempting to pay more attention to form compared to content (Krashen 1982). According to Nygaard (2010), a big percentage of students usually anticipate their teachers to provide them with feedback regarding their assignments. On the contrary, the intention of the teacher includes the desire to provide an evaluation of the work of a student. It also includes the desire to assist the students to improve on their writing and stop them from repeating mistakes. Hyland (2003, p.178) observes that, written responses by teachers continue to assume a crucial position in the teaching of second language. In addition, it is often the interest of learners to have work that is error-free, since most students will continue to be assessed academically in field where accuracy might be important (Hyland 2003, p.179). Hyland (2003) adds that, teachers mostly express handwritten responses on the paper of a student either as end comments or at the margin. With the augmented use of digital apparatus in most schools, submission of electronic feedback can be done either by email or through the use of the comment function. This practice provides teachers with better flexibility when providing their responses to students. Ultimately, there is a high likelihood of using the most convenient method. 2.3 Accuracy in Written English Wolfe-Quintero, Inagaki and Kim (1998, p.33) as cited in Nygaard (2010), define accuracy as the ability of making no errors while communicating using a given language either orally or in written form. The research reviewed accuracy, complexity and fluency measures, such as index, ratio and frequency measures, used by scholars studying writing in second language. It aimed at determining the most effective developmental measure. According to the researchers, evaluation of accuracy entails counting errors in a given way, and they described two approaches. The first method focuses on structural units that are error-free, such as sentences, T-units and clauses. After reviewing 39 studies, Wolfe-Quintero, Inagaki and Kim (1998) inferred that errors per T-unit and error-free T-unit ratio constitute the ideal accuracy measures. This approach has received criticisms from different scholars. Larsen-Freeman and Michael (1991) observe that, the measures are effective to a given level in distinguishing varied developmental levels for different learners’ groups. However, they accepted that all the measures had a number of flaws, and neither of them worked for every individual subject. Bardovi-Harlig and Bofman (1989) as cited in Wolfe-Quintero et al. (1998, p.36) criticized the approach and formulated another approach that exclusively concerns error quantities. The second approach involves the examination of the quantity of errors against different measures, including the number of clauses, T-units or words. Errors’ nature is highly focused in this approach, and all kinds of errors in various quantities of groups can be assessed. The current study will examine how the teaching methods used by teachers affect the accuracy of written English as a second language among secondary school students. Existing literature has highlighted various teaching methods, including grammar-translation, communicative approach and eclectic method, which teachers use in teaching ESL students. It has also talked about the impact that provision of feedback and correction of errors might have on accuracy. The existing literature will be very useful to the current study, in that it will provide a rich background on which to conduct the study. 3. Research Purpose, Problem and Worldview 3.1 The Purpose Statement The purpose of this experiment study was to test the theory of teaching language that compares the teaching methods to the accuracy in written English. Controlling for the experiment are the various teaching activities that the students take part in at secondary school level. The independent variable will be defined as the various teaching styles that combine several teaching activities intended to produce the best mastery of English language among the learners. The dependent variables will be defined as the accuracy in written English which refers to the number of errors students make in written English tests. The teaching activities acting as control will be defined as the activities the teachers will apply to engage students in learning English language. Writing is one of the four skills to be taught during the teaching of English as a second language to secondary school students. During the writing process, language learners have to be able to write new vocabulary, sentence structure, culture, and information in the English language. A number of studies (Ediger 2001; Kuklinski, M.R. & Weinstein, R.S 2001) suggest factors that affect learning to write. One factor that affects the accuracy in written English is the teaching style employed by the teacher. Although there has been some research about teaching styles used in teaching English as a second language (Tochon 2003; Kauchak & Eggen 1998), there is a lack of studies regarding the role of teaching methods in the accuracy of writing English language. 3.2 Worldview To explore three different methods of teaching English as a second language and their effects on the development of writing abilities among high school learners, this study employs the Post positivism world view. Post positivists hold a deterministic philosophy in which causes probably determine effects or outcomes (Creswell 2009). Thus, testing accuracy in written English is an experimental study that needs to identify and assess the causes that influence outcomes which befits a post positivist’s reflection. This study seeks to find out if there is an improvement in accuracy of written tests after a particular language teaching method has been applied. This some sort of experiment and therefore applies quantitative methods. To show a world view the quantities method produces result that can be applied in other language learning lessons. 4. Research Questions The following research question guided the study; i) How does the eclectic method of teaching English affect the accuracy of written English among secondary school students? ii) How does the communicative approach to teaching English affect the accuracy of written English among secondary school students? iii) How does the grammar-translation method of teaching English affect the accuracy of written English among secondary school students? 5. Research Methodology This section outlines the setting in which the research project will be carried out, as well as the specific people who will take part in the project. It also includes the type of methods that the researcher will use to gather data for the study, along with the rationale used in choosing the methods. This section includes the techniques that will be used in analyzing the collected data in order to aid in answering the research questions and making inferences. 5.1 Setting and Participants The research project will include an assessment of a total of 160 English written compositions from 80 students from five different secondary schools. Out of the 80 students, each school will have 16 students whereby four students will be chosen from first, second, third and fourth year of study. The various teaching activities that students take part in at a secondary school level will act as the control for the study. English teachers from the various schools will also participate in the research. 5.2 Procedure The researcher will meet with students from each school at different times to brief them about the research project and the significance of their participation in it prior to the actual commencement of the research. The students will be asked to write two English compositions on different subject matters. The compositions will not be about things taught in class rather they will be on creative writing. The students will be allowed to use dictionaries in writing the compositions. In addition, the compositions should be typed in order to allow easy and quick assessment since difficulties relating to poor handwriting will be avoided. The first composition will be written at the beginning of the first school term, while the second one will be written at the end of the term. These two times of the term are considered the ideal for carrying out the research. At the beginning of the term, the students will be still fresh and will not have a lot of school work to do. At the end of the term the students will have completed their exams and thus, they will have some free time. Students will be given a period of two weeks to complete and submit their compositions. This duration is considered appropriate to allow the students to take their time and write the composition without feeling pressured to do so. They will be expected to write the compositions during their free time since it is not part of their academic work. The written compositions from the two groups of students will be assessed for errors such as spelling, upper and lower case, punctuation, tense, incomplete sentences, and sentence structure. On the other hand, some of the English teachers will be interviewed on their observations about the accuracy of written English among their ESL students. Interviews will be conducted on Fridays during the lunch-hour break. The researcher will also send questionnaires to the teachers who will be not available for interviews. Teachers will be given two weeks to fill the questionnaires, after which they will send them back to the researcher via mail. 5.3 Data Collection There is a wide range of data collection methods that are available for use in collecting data for this research. On the contrary, due to limited time and resources, a choice of the best methods is necessary. For the current study, the data collection methods that have been chosen include survey, interviews, and questionnaires. In the survey method, the researcher will present a small number of students from different schools with the topics on which to write their English compositions. There is a limited time for carrying out the research and thus, the researcher cannot afford to have a large group of students to write compositions. This is because; he might lack enough time to go through all the compositions to identify errors. Selecting a small number of students from the five schools will help ensure that the researcher gets an ample time to assess the written English compositions for various errors. This will in turn ensure the presentation of accurate results for the study. Individual interviews were chosen as a data collection method for the teachers because unlike the students, the number of teachers to be interviewed is less. Interviews are also associated with a number of advantages. First, the use of individual interviews will help the researcher to acquire detailed information on the opinions, perceptions, and personal feelings of teachers regarding accuracy in written English among ESL secondary school students. Moreover, through interviews, the researcher will be able to obtain first-hand information from the teachers on the research topic. Additionally, the researcher will have the opportunity to ask for clarification on areas that he does not understand well. This help in clarifying ambiguities as well as following up incomplete answers for the collection of complete and detailed data. The response rate for interviews is also likely to be higher than other methods such as questionnaires. Hence, the researcher is assured of obtaining adequate information on accuracy in written English among ESL students. Furthermore, the use of questionnaires has been chosen to gather data on accuracy from teachers will not be available for individual interviews. The researcher will not be in a position to meet all the English teachers at the specific days he will be visiting the various schools since most teachers prefer coming to school mostly on the days that they have lessons. Thus, the questionnaires will help gather data from those who will be absent on the researcher’s day of visit to a given school. This method was selected because it will help save time as well as resources since the researcher will not need to go back to the schools on another day. Reference List Bardovi-Harlig, K & Bofman, T 1989, Attainment of syntactic and morphological accuracy by advanced language learners, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 11 (1), 17-34. Chomsky, N 1959, A review of B.F. Skinner’s verbal behaviour, Language, 35 (1), 26-58. Drew, I & Sorheim, B 2004, English Teaching Strategies: Methods for English Teachers of 10 to 16-year olds, Oslo, Det Norske Samlaget. Edge, J 1989, Mistakes and Correction, New York, Longman. Harmer, J 2001, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Harlow, Pearson Education Limited. Howatt, AP 1984, A History of English Language Teaching, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Hyland, K 2003, Second Language Writing, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Krashen, SD 1982, Principles and Practice in second Language Acquisition, Hempstead, Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd. Larsen-Freeman, D & Michael, HL 1991, An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research, Harlow, Pearson Education Limited. Lehmann, TM 1999, Literacy and the Tertiary Student: Why has the Communicative Approach failed? Unpublished doctorate thesis, University of Bergen. Lightbown, PM & Spada, N 1999, How Languages are Learned, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Nygaard, AM, 2010, An investigation of accuracy in the written English of upper secondary vocational, Master's Thesis, Universitetet i Stavanger. Wagner, J 1991, Innovation in foreign language teaching, In R. Phillipson, LS, E.Kellerman & MS. Smith (Eds.), Foreign/Second Language Pedagogy Research (pp. 288-306), Bristol, The Longdunn Press Limited. Wolfe-Quintero, K, Inagaki, S & Kim, HY 1998, Second Language Development in Writing: Measures of Fluency, Accuracy & Complexity, Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press. Read More