Origins of Spoken Language - Essay Example

Spoken Language JOB Origins of Language Spoken language has undergone numerous transformations since its evolution. This is because its dissemination is oral and the format of production is mainly in spontaneous form. Therefore, in the origins of language, it is critical to assess the source of spoken language and how it continues to evolve for the benefit of its respective speakers. According to linguists, there are two distinct theories that attempt to explain the origin of language. These are the continuity and discontinuity theories whereby the former asserts that a certain complexity defines language in regards to identifying its final form. In other words, the continuity theory argues that has origins in the pre-linguistic systems (Baugh, A., & Cable, T. 2002, 89). Contrastingly, discontinuity theorists posit that language emerges from an innate faculty meaning it is only limited to human beings. Consequently, in spoken language, individuals communicate and respond to other beings supported by a language faculty instead of cultural or social interaction. Origins of Writing Scholars are yet to agree on a definite meaning of writing. However, varying meanings describe writing as that act of representing language in form of structured and visual systems. Yule (2012) insists that writing encompasses the depiction of language through the use of graphic signs. It means while writing uses visuals to mark its organized parameters, spoken language is generally organized within the context of delivery (Yule, G. 2012, 122). Additionally, while writing is permanent, spoken language is transient and flexible. Most speeches are, therefore, easy and quick in terms of arrangement and delivery while writing requires significant effort. Another integral element of spoken language involves its simpler organization that ensures it is easier to follow and conceptualize. It is unlike the more intricate structures found in writing. Acquisition of speech, thus, is deemed natural, basic, and universal as opposed to writing that is derivative. Spoken language, hence, is notably acceptable as an old form of communication especially in the pre-historic societies. Old English - King Alfred and the Vikings Spoken language equally had its old form that enabled its recipients to communicate effectively with others as demonstrated in its evolution. The Germanic invasion, for example, meant that assimilation of cultures happened particularly in their confrontation with the Anglo-Saxons. As a result, certain kingdoms emerged from 7th to 9th centuries as learning and literature developed into different dialects. These dialects are found majorly in West Saxon, Kent, and Wessex. Interestingly, the spread of Christianity integrated wholly into the Old English resulted to words such as alms, canon, deacon, martyr, mass and shrine among others. Other pertinent terms of Christian domestic origin included sock, tunic, and purple. Scandinavian interaction also brought new terms to facilitate effective communication amongst speakers (Crystal, D. 2004, 155). These were mostly functional rather content words. Koineisation was another fundamental influence in the formation new dialects as it interacted with the Old English. It has a few variations that retain the grammatical rules of syntax, semantics, and phonological structure. Therefore, in modern English with emphasis in spoken aspect, the pronoun system is in sync with grammatical fusion of both old and new words. Middle English: Normans and Chaucer Linguistic changes meant that the Old English transformed into Middle English in order to counter the political confusions of 1066 especially the jostling of positions to acquire influence and power. As a result, a nation such as France infused its language in the institutions of its government, court, literature, and religion. Contrastingly, French and English borrowed words from one another in what constituted the Norman-French collaboration. This resulted to the breakdown of language into monolingual speakers, who encompassed the peasants; bilingualism belonged to the middle classes while mono-lingual for the members of the aristocracy (Hogg, R. 2002, 90). In Diglossia, language is subdivided into high and low varieties. High variety mainly entails news media, speeches or lectures while low variety is the backbone of most spoken language especially with conversations with friends and family members. This caused the flow of several words from French that include alliance, penance, embroidery, and luxury. Early Modern English: Shakespeare and the Great Vowel Shift The success of Middle English signified the transition to Early Modern English that had some interesting features worth noting. This meant that the spoken language witnessed expansion against the background of the printing press and the proliferation of religion. Alternatively, the inkhorn controversy sparked by Shakespeare meant that several books could now be printed. Availability of written material from various presses symbolized the use of spoken language to address other vital historic periods such as the renaissance and reformation. Religion and politics, on the other hand, introduced new communication methods that connected the high and the low classes. In religion, Catholics applied the Latin language to conduct mass in an organized format while in politics; speech was more convenient (Singh, I. 2005, 110). Another major issue was the purist vocabulary that infused both archaic terms and other dialectal Old English words to create new meanings for the Early Modern English. Other authors that entail mostly Shakespeare, Milton, Chaucer, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson added certain words in the contemporary lexicon toward achieving a shift in the usage of vowels. Overall, this resulted to the introduction of negation word called not implied to oppose an idea either in written or spoken language. Modern English: Johnson and the Enlightenment Johnson is credited for revolutionizing Modern English particularly during the Enlightenment period. He largely introduced common idioms and classical styles that often employed coarser format during delivery and dissemination in most spoken language presentations. As a major voice during the Scottish Enlightenment, he introduced different elements of pastoral poetry and also assisted in the development of a poetic form and the Habbie stanza. Consequently, this brought a sermon style spoken language with borrowed lexicons from French, Latin, and Scottish dialects (Crystal, D. 2004, 165). The prose style of Johnson equally had proper grammatical rules and, thus ensured that most speeches had definite meaning during communication. Contrastingly, Johnson’s formulation of a specific philosophy of language differed from the acceptable non-Cartesian objectives that usually defined spoken language in most contexts. It is because his ideas possessed reason and tradition of spurring a cultural intellectual movement. Language and Technology Language and technology are two inseparable entities because they have a symbiotic relationship. Therefore, in spoken language, technology is instrumental because it enhances communication between two people. Additionally, the use of microphones, television, and speakers equip the communicator with effective tools of disseminating information and introducing new lexicons. Social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, and Whatsapp are now used in the exchange of information particularly during chatting and sending of messages. Spoken language has, thus, conquered the correct writing formats while bringing new forms that applicable in formal settings (Yule, G. 2012, 129). Likewise, linguists agree that technology is transforming spoken language amongst most speakers. This is evident in texting and e-chatting that has proliferated amongst youth subsequently unleashing new acronyms such as LOL, G2G, WTF, and BRB. It ushers in digital English that equally has its distinct syntax, semantic, and morphological structure. Digital English Digital English is the consequence of the inroads made by technology in spoken language and this is hugely influencing communication between different age groups. On that account, new English words are used in ordinary conversations such as the verb to Facebook or Tweet meaning to socialize on Facebook and Twitter respectively. Similarly, digital English implies that speech does not have to follow the Old English format that insisted on the grammatical rules. Instead, it allows flexibility, hence, becoming descriptive in approach. In descriptive approach, speakers are permitted for establish their own rules to attain competence unlike the prescriptive method that limits speech in most cases (Crystal 2004, p.158). However, while digital English is found applicable in numerous contexts to assist speakers communicate effectively in the modern age; it is often corrupted by jargons that are rarely sensible. Digital English is also limited to a particular age causing a great hindrance to communication. English as a Global Language The success of spoken language globally especially English demonstrates how political and cultural ties have impacted upon overall communication. On that aspect, English is a worldwide phenomenon that influences in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Speakers from these regions have, therefore, improved their respective official languages to suit their cultures and traditions. Most communications are usually disseminated in local dialects culled from the grammatical rules of universal standardized English (Singh, I. 2005, 113). The need for a global communication medium has also ensured that English is accorded a special category unlike French, German, or Japanese that are equally vital. New Englishes Globalization has led to the proliferation of New Englishes that now character dialogue between the old and the young while defining original cultural waves. These cultural waves are characterized with non-native varieties that are currently establishing their own lingua franca. Children are credited for constantly recreating different forms of linguistic characteristics. This interesting development is apparent in the expansion of New Zealand English, Australian English, and Indian English among others (Crystal, D. 2004, 160). Africa, on the other hand, is not lagging behind in its quest to start its New Englishes while also integrating other dialects such as the use of pidgin in Nigeria. Bibliography Baugh, A & Cable, T., 2002. A History of the English Language (5th edition). Routledge London. Cambridge publishers. Crystal, D., 2004. The stories of English, Penguin, London. Crystal, D., 2007. English as a global language, Cambridge University Press, Hogg, R., 2002. An introduction to old English, Edinburgh University Press, New York. Singh, I., 2005. The history of English: a student guide, Hodder Arnold, London. Yule, G., 2012,. The study of language, Cambridge University Press, Mason. JOB 2 The origin of language Before scholars commenced their studies on the development of language, it had rarely been thought of as a peculiar phenomenon. Human beings, however, cannot live without language because it facilitates interactions, define civilizations, and facilitates progress. Charles Darwin, in one of the earliest attempts at studying language, said that human beings first developed musical ability before developing language. Although religion gave attempts at defining language, there are only four empirical explanations about the origins of language. In the natural sound source theory, early human beings imitated developed primitive words by imitating the natural sounds around them (Givón, T., & Malle, B. F. 2002, 67). When an object moved by making a certain sound, human beings might have used the sound to refer to such an object. It is essential to note that there are modern words that build from given sounds. This entails words such as buzz and bang. The theory, however, fails to explain the words that are used to refer to abstract concepts that do not entail sounds. This led to the social interaction source theory that explains individuals as social beings. In turn, individual living in groups developed sounds out of physical effort in carrying out certain tasks. The physical adaptation source explains the development of language as having synchronized with the physical evolution of human beings. The tool making theory views human beings as technological beings that derive language out of given innovations. Lastly, the genetic theory asserts that human beings are endowed with an exceptional capacity for language. The development of language, just as the development of the upright posture, occurs sequentially. The Old English English has experienced a profound revolution in its form and use. Several civilizations, wars, and conquests inform the development of English language. The AngloSaxons faced Germanic and Scandinavian interactions that defined the development of the English language. The Anglo-Saxons spoke initially Germanic dialects that provided the foundation for the development of English. Romans penetration into Wales and Scotland commenced a Romanic influence on the English culture and language. From 563-700, Christianity’s highly influenced the development of the language. Latin brought new words such as abbot, altar, and hymn. In education and learning, the Latin language brought words such as grammar and master. In 878, King Alfred defeated the Danes and instigated a revolution in language (Singh, I. 2005, 72). Alfred Viking was a war expert who took control of the larger part of England. He ensured a great influence in England because he prevented it from conquests by the Vikings. Although the Vikings never took control of England, they bestowed cultural effects on the Anglo-Saxons. Limited lingual differences enhanced an interaction that led to intermarriages. This provided an opportunity for English to borrow certain lexical items from Old Norse, the language of the Vikings. Alfred Vikings influenced a language revolution that was dependent upon his emphasis on education. He has the legacy for inventing the legacy of prose that facilitated the translation of vita works such as Soliloquies of St Augustine. The Old English, especially, built around the Wessex dialect. In its morphological typology, the language made use of morphs that entailed more than one unit of grammatical information. The language defined gender attributions that are visible in works such as the Beowulf poem (Wright, L. 2006, 78). Middle English The Old English lent its way to the Middle English. The Middle English period was an era of weighty change, in social and linguistic terms. The Romance influence significantly displaced the Germanic structures of the medieval Anglo- Saxon society. In this period, the social structures enabled the traces of modern English. The 1066 Norman Conquest perturbed the previously peaceful nature of the English society and triggered conspiracies aimed controlling the throne (Singh, I. 2005, 103). The Norman’s control threatened the survival of English as the aristocratic classes spoke their native French variety. In turn, administrative duties entailed high usage of English in the executing of official duties. The French rule, however, allowed for an autonomous development of English. In the period, English literature survived alongside the development of French literature. A high religious presence is visible in the 13th century literature such as the Owl and the Nightingale. The Middle English period comprised a dialectical variation in terms of five main dialects. In the period, a few developments occurred to spelling variations. For instance, influence of Norman scribes led to the introductions of sounds such as th. Besides, the Norman’s influences helped introduce changes to double vowel sounds, which had been previously used to emphasize on vowel length. In terms of grammar, the French influence helped reduce inflections in grammar. While the Old English heavily borrowed from the Germanic dialects, Middle English heavily borrowed from French. It is estimated that English borrowed close to 10,000 loan words. These includes words as government, administer, and attorney. This period explains the profound relationship between the English language and the French language. The Early Modern English The Middle English period laid the foundation for further socio-linguistic changes English. It is essential to note that the early English societies encouraged cosmopolitan settings whereby individuals from different ethnicities interacted in trade and politics. The Early Modern English period falls between 1500 and 1700 centuries. This period entailed a developing sense of national identity, advances in technology, and growing hostility towards the church (Mugglestone, L. 2006, 97). The split of the Catholic Church into the established order and protestant churches marked an important bearing on the development of language. Education became an essential tool for social mobility thereby influencing an emphasis in English literacy in the Middle Class schools. In turn, this enabled the development of theatres and the emergence of a robust reading culture. The expansion of reading, writing, and printing facilitated the standardization of language because a uniform language would be helpful in schools and the government. Notable influences include Edmund Spencer, Christopher Marlowe, and William Shakespeare. By examining the works of Shakespeare, scholars have considerably gained insight into the early modern language. Shakespeare thrived on Latinate extensions and coinages such as amazement, assassination, and sanctimonious (Hogg, R., & Denison, D. 2006, 109). In addition, he popularized oversea language such as cannibal and basta. Such words mostly served satirical circumstances. He also popularized common language such as buzz and good riddance. The Early Modern English age allowed vowel shift and the modification of modals. In this perspective, modals lost their initial meanings and acquired contractions. Whereas there were mild differences between verbs and modal verbs in the Middle English period, the Early Modern English dictated that modal verbs could only accompany main verbs. The emergence of the do-support system also helped revised negation in statements. Modern English Modern English is a 19th century development that entails innumerable changes in how individuals used English. English spread through colonization and industrialization. In turn, the language facilitated a global restructuring that led to the advent of the language as a medium of consumerism and advertising. Socio-politically, the language facilitated the development of world political and economic bodies such as the IMF and the World Bank. In the age of enlightenment, standardization efforts increased. Samuel Johnson produced the first dictionary of the English language. This was an immensely integral work that became a foundation for subsequent lexicographical publication. It included a wide range of vocabularies, spelling and pronunciation, and illustrations of use. The Dictionary, therefore, was a regulating document that would prescribe the standard form of English for every user. Linguists relied on etymology and reason as a means of understanding and developing language. English as a global language The expansion of the British Empire in the nineteenth century led to the modern forms of English. New English colonies in the 19th century included Australia and New Zealand, Africa, and Caribbean highlands. The establishment of British school system necessitated the use of English as the primary medium of instruction. Britain attempted to create affiliate countries in their colonies thereby exerting a profound English culture in such countries. New Englishes English moved out of its formal setting and extended into homes. In such settings, communities owned the English language and merged it with native tongues. For instance, places such as Trinidad and Jamaica invented the Pidgin English. This resulted as individuals evaded the restriction of classroom settings. It is crucial, however, to note that most schools in such countries retain the formal standardized English in educational institutions. English as a global language English remains both a driver and an artifact of current socio-economic and political structures. Currently, English is one of the languages facilitating world trade and foreign policy. The use of internet and technology has facilitated the spread of the English language. This occurs as individuals watch English TV channels and movies. It is, however, critical to note that other countries are adapting their languages to computer systems thereby diminishing the role of English language in technological systems. The evolution of English has traversed centuries. The Old English emanated from the Germanic dialects that later interacted with Romanic and Danes’ influence. King Alfred instigated an educational system that enabled the flourishing of English literature through an emphasis on prose. The Old English period gave way to the Middle English era that entailed a considerable French and Latin influence on the English language. The early modern English initiated major elements of modern English as the Anglo-Saxon societies developed a robust writing, reading, and printing culture. It helped in the removal of inflections and helped in mild standardization of the language. Further standardization of language continued in the 19th century. The spread of British Empire expanded the use of English language in other countries. Globalization and technology helped in further spread of the language. This, however, did not deter the adaptation of the English language into local forms. Bibliography Algeo, J. (2013). The origins and development of the English language. Wadsworth Pub Co. Cambridge: University Press. Givón, T., & Malle, B. F., 2002. The evolution of language from pre-language, Amsterdam: Benjamins Pub. Hogg, R., & Denison, D., 2006. A history of the English language, Mugglestone, L., 2006. The Oxford history of English, Oxford: University Press. Singh, I., 2005. The history of English: a student guide, London: Arnold. Wright, L. (2006). The development of standard English, 1300-1800: theories, descriptions, conflicts, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 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