Techniques of Obtaining Vocabulary in a Second Language - Literature review Example

Type the document sub 4/25 user Table of Contents Table of Contents Introduction 3 Research Question (s) 3 Literature review 4 Trial andError 4 Drill and Practice 5 Translation Exercises 6 Conversation 6 Listening to Language Materials 7 Reading 7 Watching Movies and Videos 9 Playing Games 11 Questionnaire and Test: Second Language Acquisition 14 Questionnaire Analysis 15 Demographic Information 20 Vocabulary Test 20 Conclusions 21 Introduction There are diverse techniques of obtaining vocabulary in a second language. Linguists propose different strategies of vocabulary attainment in reference to numerous factors (Meara, 1997). There are diverse factors that are involved in the process of vocabulary attainment. These involve tasks, materials and personal and environmental factors that dictate the effectiveness of vocabulary learning by an individual. Task factors are the basic methods used to acquire, practice or assess second language acquisition. Personal factors involve self-concept, attitudes and prior knowledge of the second language. Environmental factors may involve the host culture and available output opportunities. While there are some methods that seem to work more effectively for second language vocabulary acquisition, Research aims The aims of this research are to: identify the diverse strategies of vocabulary acquisition, examine the effectiveness of various vocabulary acquisition strategies. superficially evaluate the relationship of vocabulary acquisition strategies in context with personal, environmental and task factors Research Question (s) Is there one single most effective strategy for learning vocabulary among the diverse strategies in existence? Literature review Many researchers and professionals have recently taken great interest in the strategies for learning second language vocabulary. These include linguists, psychologists, sociologists, and language teachers (Meara 1997). By their studies they examined many different strategies for learning vocabulary: rote memorization with, or without, a language lab, translation exercises, drill and practice, live and digital computer aided conversation, listening to music or stories, with or without the text in hand or on screen, matching and other word games, watching movies and other videos, with or without subtitles, reading books or booklets, with or without looking up unknown words and writing sentences, conversations, scripts and stories, with or without using a dictionary (Cohen, 76, 2001). Crucial to vocabulary, or another, learning is assessment. Even students using self-study need assessment to guide them in what to study. Assessment methods that work without being intrusive or interfering with learning processes are best (Stahl, Katherine A. DoughertyBravo,Marco A. 2010). Trial and Error Guessing, not mentioned earlier, as a strategy towards vocabulary acquisition in a second language is commonly encouraged (McCarthy, 102, 1990). The first language develops naturally, not as a result of direct instruction, but by trial and error (Ellis, 125, 1997). The child tries a sound and looks for a response. Then the child tries to repeat the sound and looks for the same response. Eventually the child discovers that certain sounds are connected to certain responses, many of which fulfill the needs of the child, some which do little or nothing and some which get undesirable responses. Therefore, second language development should work well following the trial and error approach. Depending on personal factors such as prior familiarity and generality, this would be an ideal strategy, except for the time involved, because it builds on discovery (Wenden, 578, 1987). However, after a certain age, generally around puberty, some of the sounds not used in the child’s mother tongue have been discarded or lost from disuse, so it becomes gradually more difficult for the person to learn a second language’s phonemes. Extra attention may be needed to help with pronunciation. Self-efficacy, as a personal factor, would enhance this strategy as it would eliminate embarrassment (Flavell, 910, 1979). This would be fine if all the person had to do was to learn the language, and if the environment allowed trial and error. In order for this strategy to work, the learner needs enough time to keep working on the language for hours daily, and needs to be in an environment where he or she can get useful feedback, as in an environment where everyone uses the target language. One place where guessing is rather effective is with software programs, such as Rosetta Stone, that actually uses guessing as a major beginning strategy, mixed with drill and practice (Newswire 2013, Rosetta Stone aims its language solutions at children 3-6. 2013). Drill and Practice Rote rehearsal would as well be effective for many individuals in some environments (McCarthy, 104, 1990). There are several form of drill and practice. Foreign language labs have been around a long time using tapes DVDs and now computers and other devices. There is great software available that uses drill and practice, at least part of the time. These can run on almost any electronic device that records and plays back, from MP3 players to tablets and cell phone, and most computers. One needs a device with speakers and microphone or a headset. Drill and practice works, but it is generally boring, so learners get distracted and also may shorten their study periods as time passes. If electronic gadgets are used it may encourage longer study as the learner may be mobile while studying, so they can use it when exercising, walking or riding public transportation (Demouy, Kukulska-Hulme 2010, Wong, Looi 2010, Wong, Chen et al. 2012). However, if not applied in actual real use, the vocabulary so painfully acquired will not be well retained (Watson 2014). Translation Exercises Translation exercises are a long standing method for learning vocabulary since before the movable type printing press was invented. Students in many classes still do this though translations from the textbook are not often used any more when there is so much available on the Internet with varying vocabulary. Many teachers either copy more interesting materials from there and hand them out or have the students find their own to do, generally involving selecting one item in the language of origin and one in the second language (Djauzi Moedzakir 2013). However, translation has been found to be not as useful as accelerated language use without translation. Conversation Conversation is one area of communication that language learners are striving for, but which is one of the more difficult things to do. In person conversation or conversation using technologies, such as Skype or message boards on social networking sites can provide venues for valuable real practice(Wasik, Iannone-Campbell 2012, Lugo-Neris, Jackson et al. 2010). However, while learners need practice in conversation, unless the learners are at the same level or one is slightly advance over the other it may become simple recitation, which means there is no learning taking place, only demonstration. Since it is interactivity that makes conversation useful, recitation only uses time. Listening to Language Materials Listening to foreign language materials and trying to understand them is another method of adding vocabulary, but it is generally agreed that this should be a small part of instruction. Turning on radio or listening to books, music or lectures in the target language is one way to help create a first language environment. It helps to train the ear, and the brain is learning even when the learner is not paying much attention (Benitez 2005). Of course, this is why advertising on TV and radio works. There are a few advantages, because the learning is retained without close examination, so the learner can be doing all kinds of other activities at the same time (Duffy, Fox et al. 2004, Benitez 2005). If the learner wants to speed up the learning it helps to have the written materials available to be read along with the listening to help make the connections between the words and the sounds. Some learners benefit from listening first without text, then reading along in the target language, followed by discussion with a fellow learner in person, using SMS, over the phone, online or through chat or Skype. When the two or more learners share what they understood they often learn from each other. Then the same learners can listen again with text on one line and the translation on another or on facing pages. This method works well, but it should not be the first vocabulary study unless the programming is in the target language and very immersing. Reading Reading is an excellent method for vocabulary learning, even better in conjunction with the recorded text as discussed above. Some people, however, seem to be compelled to look up words while they read. This is discouraged by most teachers. It is suggested that the learner simply mark the unknown words or list them somewhere and go on reading. It is a characteristic of good writing to make sure the context, the words around the unknown word, makes the meaning of the content words, usually the nouns and verbs that carry the main meaning, very plain. If a complicated or industry jargon word is used, a good writer will define that word immediately by simply adding either examples of a brief explanatory phrase. Another reason for not looking up the words is that writers tend to repeat certain words that fit with a subject until the subject changes. Therefore, most content words will be repeated several times over a few pages. Each time that same word is used, it is in a slightly different context. After a certain number of “examples” or when a familiar context is used, the reader/learner will understand the word. This may happen gradually or it may happen when the right combination is used. This kind of “discovery: learning tends not to be forgotten so easily (Kumar, Varma et al. 2013). Finally, the meaning and definition of a word are not the same. Definition is very generic, and it may mean nothing unless examples are given. Still, so much meaning is carried by the context that definitions often do not help. The following example works to illustrate this: She had a little time to imagine what the doctor wanted, and she was scared. She had little time to imagine what the doctor wanted as she was scared. These two sentences may seem like they mean the same thing to someone who simply translates them, yet they are almost opposite in meaning, and that can be very important in fiction or drama to set the mood and in non-fiction to insure clarity. So dictionary definition is not very useful for language vocabulary acquisition. One who uses a dictionary needs the definition and then a perhaps dozens of examples, or a few examples contrasted like the illustration sentences to show the meaning. Numbers are fairly static in their meanings, but words are like silly putty, shaped by the words around them. Of course, these factors are the main reasons that teachers have moved from translation and definition to actual use of the target language in writing original material in order to assess the learner’s progress. Definitions can be memorized, but knowing meaning is learned. One friend of the author who has taught in China once emailed that she was astonished that her Chinese students had studied English for between four and twelve years each, yet only a few could carry on a conversation in English. While it is changing now, for many years all education in China was drill and practice (Andrusyshyn 2014 personal conversation via Skype). They memorized thousands of words but could not talk. So reading works well. Fiction will provide more variety of vocabulary and more popular words, but non-fiction is easier due to the more limited vocabulary and the patterns used in writing non-fiction. Generally, non-fiction also has more useful pictures and illustrations. Watching Movies and Videos Movies and videos can be used very well for learning vocabulary, but the method uses many of the others already discussed. Interesting movies will capture the learner audience. The learners will be having a good time, which seems to enhance learning. They are engaged. In addition, movies and video supply visual cues to everything that happens, allowing the audience to make better guesses (Van Lommel, Laenen et al. 2006). There are a number of different methods for using movies and videos for vocabulary acquisition, but they mostly make use of the other strategies, but enhance their effects. For example, one method used is to stop on a frame with a lot of “things” in it and ask the students to guess where certain items are found. If the classroom is a multimedia setup, with the students on their own terminals, the teacher can call on students and the student’s screen will show on the classroom monitor. Otherwise the teacher may pass around a laser pointer. Using this method the activity can go on to more complicated vocabulary questions, such as, “What is she doing?” as the video rolls. Silly questions also work, especially with younger children. “Pointing to a cat, the teacher may ask, “Is that a fat green pig?” Any sentence that is funny works well here. Once the teacher has demonstrated this, the students can be allowed to ask and answer silly questions. The idea of getting a laugh from one’s classmates motivates students a lot. The teacher might also ask the students what they think will happen next. Finally, the teacher would do well to demonstrate a really good learning strategy in the classroom, that of discussion. A lively discussion will have students stretching to find the right words to join in. They may even risk making up words to see if they work. Most teachers have learned to look at this practice as good, as long as the made up words match the language’s rules. So “dividedly” would communicate “separately” and earn praise with explanation. Immersion is the most important attribute of movies and videos for vocabulary learning. If the materials are exciting or funny the students may become totally immersed in the experience. Immersion tricks the brain into thinking that this is real experience, so the brain stores the learning in the same way as real experience with all the connected emotional cues, thus making the information much easier to retrieve (Ali, Mukundan et al. 2012) . This is why we cry in movies. We react emotionally. The human brain treats dreams and immersive movies, and sometimes immersive books an(Allen 2007)d tapes as reality, making the experience much stronger and the learning is reinforced . Good documentaries work as well as movies with a story, because they supply lots of demonstration with the words and the vocabulary used is more limited. It is wonderful when a great documentary is available in the target language for a subject that interests the learners, perhaps some other subject of study. Watson (2014) used cooking videos for her culinary arts students studying Italian. She then had them make their own videos as a class project. This was very popular. Playing Games Game play has been used for a long time in vocabulary learning, but they were simple games in the past, such as crosswords, words search puzzles, mazes, word matches, and other paper based games. With the new technology, students of foreign language can change the language on electronic games, just as on DVDs, and play in that language. Role playing games are best for this use, because they have a lot more text and dialogue. Story is one of the best ways to learn anything, so games with a story work well. If the game is built in a virtual reality environment, so much the better. The immersion factor of movies carries over to games and is just as powerful. Frankly, any electronic game raises and retains the interest of the learners; if the game also has lessons embedded which are supported by pedagogical theory it will greatly increase the speed and efficiency of language learning, especially of the included vocabulary (COSKUN 2013). The Internet is a treasure trove of free and cheap games suitable for learning second language. It can also provide tons of content that can be used to make STEM (Science Technology Education Method) the content for vocabulary lessons more relevant (Kennedy, Wexler 2013). Other applications that can be used include cartoon sites, sites where simple animation tools can be used (Igarishi 2010). Comic book creation sites offer another creative avenue for applying the learned vocabulary. Teachers might have students create something using the vocabulary, and if they will be shared with the class, the students will strive to make them interesting, even funny. Easy to use and cheap or free creation tools can aid in education and promote communication, so it stands to reason that they would also be useful in language learning if communication is the goal (Thornton, Thornton et al. 2013). Complexity is a task factor that as well requires dictionary use and rote rehearsal as an ideal strategy of obtaining vocabulary (Flavell, 915, 1979). Availability of multiple output opportunities would enhance the dictionary and rote rehearsal techniques as a leaner would have platforms on which to practice vocabularies and tasks to which they could be applied (Wu, Lowyck et al. 2013). This environmental factor would therefore qualify dictionary use and rote rehearsal as ideal strategies of vocabulary acquisition (Wenden, 582, 1987). So in a review of the literature, therefore, all the strategies would be dependent on personal, environmental and task factors for their effectiveness. It seems that the most useful strategies for vocabulary acquisition require combination with other strategies. Guessing with visual clues seems to be the best strategy in isolation, but unless the thus acquired vocabulary is used within a reasonable time for a real or realistic application, it will be lost. So does it count as a good strategy if the vocabulary is not set in long term memory? Frankly, if one strategy alone had to be picked it should probably be engagement. Whatever strategy engages the students and keeps their attention will be the most useful. Whatever activity prompts students to use the new vocabulary or look for more outside the classroom is a great strategy. Computer programs may become the next “best” learning tool for vocabulary and much more. The use of great 360 degree virtual reality in 3D can be positively entrancing, and it can be accomplished with software that is not costly using a new goggle headset that simply mounts a smartphone and uses it as the screen. The learners may soon find themselves able to wander through wonderful virtual environments as they learn. With built in artificial intelligence and game avatars, the learner can almost learn a second language in the same way as they learned the first, because the computer never get tired or angry or bored, so it can be sued at will and the variety of available games is sure to be a banquet. Methodology For this study, the literature was reviewed and all the various methods of vocabulary acquisition were discussed. Then a small sample of students were interviewed for preferences and tested for proficiency in the target language, which was English. The available sample was small, but the research question was narrow enough that validity is assured by the fact that they are leaners. The participants of the study were students of a second language from a specific institution. A sample was obtained from the entire population of the institution. All characteristics were observed in the sample for maximum representation. For instance, the sample would included both genders and different levels of proficiency among the students. This would maintain the validity, accuracy and objectivity of the research. The method of data collection was by short questionnaires for preferences of the sample population plus the use of a vocabulary test. One assumption was made and it was clarified after the fact by asking each participant one more question about their favorite form of vocabulary study. They were asked how much they used it. This question was added after the questionnaires and test were completed, and the answers were attached to the appropriate participant by using the same participant number. Permissions were obtained from school and teacher and were also sent to parents. The identity of the participants was strictly confidential as the materials were given to the teacher to administer. Since no more than two participants were from any one class this was not a burden for the teacher. The test used tests only vocabulary, but it is perception based rather than objective, as it was hoped that this would allow more questions and provide a more useful score for comparison. Questionnaire and Test: Second Language Acquisition The purpose of this questionnaire is to identify learning strategies for vocabulary that people like to use or that they find useful. To this end there is also a short test which applicants will be asked to complete. It is based upon foreign language learning theory, and includes some innovations provided by technology. For this purpose, English as a Foreign Language is the target language. Some of the theory has been tested with young adult student learning ab-intio (beginners) Italian and others have been tested using both elementary level and adolescent Chinese learners of English as a Foreign Language. Questionnaire Analysis These questionnaires were distributed to 10 adult students, 5 male and 5 female of varying ages between 19 and 43. The analyses of the actual results for each question are calculated exactly from the results, However, for one female who had studied English for 20+ years, the results were really considered in the analysis of the efficacy of the study methods, because there was too much difference in the length of time she has studied English and that of the others. The next longest term of study was 16 years, and the difference in vocabulary size from the test was 16 years of study and the difference between their vocabularies was 28000 words for the woman who studies 20+ years, and 3390 for the woman who studied 16 years. Because the sample is small and the questions are few, this analysis also includes some comparison analysis of the results of the different questions in order to understand exactly what the implications are for these answers as a group, especially when compared with the results of the vocabulary test. Question One: What is your preferred way of learning new vocabulary words? a. __3___ Reading something interesting that contains the vocabulary words. b. __8___ Watching a video story or animation that uses the vocabulary words. c. __1___ Studying the list with or without a partner. d. __0___ Writing a story or conversation using the vocabulary words. e. __1___ Using a recording that allows you to repeat and record so you can check your pronunciation and that includes a sample sentence using the vocabulary words. As can be seen, only one student picked method, (e). I am not sure why. Perhaps it is availability in the middle east of language learning software in the schools. I have a friend whose grandmother used an interactive recording language lab back in the 1960’s for language vocabulary practice, but these students did not see it as useful. Nobody picked D, which may be the best method to put the learning from any other method into long term memory. Most of the students selected reading or watching video as their preferred method to learn vocabulary, but those same students use electronic translators and look up every word they do not know. In addition, the vocabulary scores for these students who picked reading as the medium, electronic translator as the source of definition also said they learned only one or a few forms of the word and they look up every word they do not know in their translator. Those that answered that they did not look up any words or that they made a list and did the look-up later had higher vocabulary scores than did those who liked to learn from reading or video, used electronic translators and looked up every word while reading. The exception was a lady who has studied English for more than twenty years. Clearly this combination is not very good. Question Two: Do you use an (a) electronic translator, (b) a bilingual dictionary, (c) a unilingual dictionary, or do you (d) look up words on line? f. __8___ b. __1___ c. __0___ d. __4___ or e. _____ None of the above. For this question eight of ten respondents replied that they use an electronic translator. Two used it in conjunction with online lookup or a bilingual dictionary, which accounts for the interesting percentages. Only one person used a unilingual dictionary, while three also use online lookup, but only for a definition. They do not look for the word in context in the target language. One other interesting note is that those who only use an electronic translator got the lowest scores on vocabulary. The numbers do not add up to ten here, because some students used two of these aids. The last choice € was not chosen, so was left out of the graph. Question Three: When you learn a new word, do you learn only one form, several common forms or all the forms you can find? a. __3___ one form b. __5___ several forms c. __2___ all the forms you can find Half of the respondents selected “several forms” and 30% selected only one form. This is really surprising, since it is common practice of many EFL teachers to suggest that students study a list of prefixes, suffixes and common roots and then use this knowledge to learn all forms of vocabulary words when they learn one. By learning what prefixes and suffixes are common and what they mean the students can then learn all forms of new vocabulary words by simply practicing using them a little with the various endings. It is astonishing that only two respondents selected that they learned all the forms they could find. It seems that many students are probably wasting a great deal of time learning isolated vocabulary words and then forgetting them, because they do not immediately use them. Question Four: When learning vocabulary, do you need the definition or is practicing using the words in sentences a better way? a. __3___ Need the definition b. __3___ Prefer to learn in context by using the words or hearing/seeing them used. c. __0___ Like to use and hear the word used first and then get the definition. d. __4___ Like to get the definition first and then practice and listen to usage. The answers to question four were more encouraging, as it seems 30% chose learning in context, while 40% chose to follow up getting the definition with usage. However, a sad 30% also chose getting the definition with no follow up, which really does not help one actually learn the vocabulary, since a definition does not really give meaning. It gives some agreed upon meanings, but out of context, especially with many electronic translators. One learns more meaning by finding many examples of usage, especially if the meaning is gained from the examples and the word is not looked up until after several examples are considered. One strategy that was not found in the literature was writing, which is, of course, dependent upon using at least one other strategy to gain knowledge of the word at first, but using the word in conversation or writing will finally push that vocabulary to long term memory (Watson 2014). Question Five: When you read in the target language how often do you look up words while you read? a. __5___ Every time I see word I do not understand b. __2___ Make a list and look them up later and reread. c. __1___ Make a list and look them up later, but do not reread. d. __2___ Never, eventually I figure it out. This question shows the most why these students do not have much larger vocabularies. Half the respondents stop to look up every word they do not understand when they read. Even using an electronic dictionary or translator takes time and effort. However, it does not deliver value. These little gadgets are great for traveling and useful for looking up single words of concrete objects. However, looking up the words before the student has been exposed to them enough time to be able to guess is a waste of time, because the words are not likely to go to long term memory until they are actually used (Watson 2014).If the student reads enough and encounters these same words enough it is possible that he or she will actually learn them eventually. However it will not be the definitions that make this happen, but rather the repeated use of the word in reading. Two of the respondents had also studied another romance language, one Spanish and one French. Their vocabulary scores were much higher than the average. If all ten scores are averaged, the mean is 11100 words, but if the two highest scores are removed that drops Demographic Information The respondents to this questionnaire were adult learners of English whose mother tongue was Arabic. Their ages ranged from 19-43 and the ten respondents were half male and half female. The least study was four months and the most was 20+ years. The student of four months already had 70% of the vocabulary enjoyed by one who studied three years. Vocabulary Test The vocabulary test, found here: http://testyourvocab.com/, was used for these students. It is on line and is a fairly reliable test of working vocabulary for both first and second language speakers, and the results from these students tends to back that up, since most of these results were lower than would be expected considering the time invested in studying English. The test does err on the lowest end and the upper end, but the lower end would not know enough to have a meaningful score and the upper end do not need this test. The ten scores were summed and averaged, resulting in of 12 thousand. However, if the two highest scores are removed the average drops to under 9000. Vocabulary 28000 3390 8840 3920 9470 4610 13900 39900 7110 2550 Total 121690 12169 Average 89700 Aveg-#1 and #8 There is, obviously little correlation between years of study and vocabulary size. Conclusions From the literature we can see that there are a number of different strategies for learning vocabulary, but it seems that none of them works along, but that there needs to be a combination of strategies in order to have effective vocabulary learning with any kind of speed. Fluency can be achieved in any language with proper study, even though learning as an adult may mean that the student will likely always have a discernable accent. However, fluency requires a usable vocabulary and the ability to keep adding vocabulary according to the grammar. Syntax and phonological rules of the language. During the process of learning vocabulary one should learn enough to be able to add vocabulary in this way. So this rules out learning by drill and practice unless the amount of drill and practice is massive. A certain amount of drill and practice will work in the beginning to help the student acquire some basic words. However, this needs to be used in real conversation in order to be retained. Bibliography Ali, Z., Mukundan, J., Baki, R. And Mohd Ayub, A.F., 2012. Second Language Learners Attitudes Towards The Methods Of Learning Vocabulary. English Language Teaching, 5(4), Pp. 24-36. Allen, J., 2007. Inside Words: Tools For Teaching Academic Vocabulary, Grades 4-12. Portland, Me: Stenhouse Publishers. Benitez, T., 2005. Reading smarts. Playthings, 103(5), pp. 21. Cohen, A. 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