E-Dictionary Use and its Effect on Vocabulary Achievement and Retention of EFL Saudi Intermediate Students - Term Paper Example

E-Dictionary Use and its Effect on Vocabulary Achievement and Retention of EFL Saudi Intermediate Students Table of Contents Abstract I. Introduction II. Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) III. Literature Review IV. Task-Based Language Teaching V. Learning in CALL classes VI. CALL and its effect on word retention VII. E-dictionary and its Uses VIII. Effect of E-Dictionary on Vocabulary Achievement IX. Retention of EFL Saudi Students X. Merits and Demerits of CALL Dictionary in EFL Classes XI. Conclusion XII. Reference I. Introduction This paper deals with the E-dictionary and its effect on the vocabulary achievements of students. The first part of the paper explains the Computer-assisted language learning (CALL). The development of CALL has been discussed in this section. This also deals with the views of various researchers regarding CALL and its contribution to the development of language within students. The next section deals with E-dictionary and its uses. This section is followed by the effect of e-dictionary on vocabulary development. At the end of the paper the merits and demerits of the CALL e-dictionary has been discussed. II. Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Technology has changed the face of education in the present scenario. It has provided different kind of information on hand and on the other hand this has enabled people to get the information faster. It plays a significant role in language studies. Computers and software today has provided not just meanings, explanations and comprehension of language but also have helped in pronunciation to a large extent which has been one challenging area of the linguistic studies. The retention in the language studies increases with the use of computer software. Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has been actively applied to second language (L2) and foreign language (FL) reading with courseware which provides a range of on-screen activities. (Son; 2001) The use of computers in language study started in 1960s. It started with the behavioristic computer assisted language learning. It had drill and grill based programs for learning. Later on with the developments in the software and tools, it emerged into Communicative CALL in 1970s and finally today it is integrative CALL. Communicative CALL encouraged the learning on the basis of activities while integrative CALL included various skills like listening, writing, speaking and reading. CALL software has certain benefits, which attracts administrators and teachers to opt for this software. CALL software provides realistic model of language in variety of media. The learner can learn language with native-speaker models. This software follows curriculum for each level. The language curriculum is based on the need and requirements of the students. It offers effective tools of assessments. The timely and effective assessments give the learner the idea of the areas s/he needs to improve. It is has been developed for the practice based learning. Learner can practice, evaluate herself/himself and understand the area where s/he lacks. It allows learner to go to next step and practice that. It is available any time and anywhere when learner needs/wants to learn. There are no limitations on the number of hours or duration for which a learner can learn it. It offers flexibility and instant assessments. Goodfellow (1994) proposes that lexical CALL programs need to address the learner's need to build a sizeable L2 mental lexicon; to maximize interactivity in the selection, processing and practice of target words; to promote a deep learning; to support learning processes which focus on structure in the target-word list; to diagnose and help modify surface learning approaches; and to generate and record data on learning approaches and outcomes. (Son; 2001) III. Literature Review There has been a wide range of literature and material available for the language study and technological intervention in that. The primary purpose of learning a foreign language is to communicate with a particular group of people speaking the same language in written or spoken form. To communicate properly one should have the knowledge of rules of communications, norms and other factors of the related community. One of the most important aspects of proficient communication is knowledge of appropriate words used at a particular point of time. Giroux, (1992) and Hall (1997) observed the relationship between culture and language. Each of these factors is functional and mutually complementary to each other. The role of language teacher changes to be cultural warriors than being simply a facilitator and educator. Now in such scenario teaching in a different culture to students who have grown up with different bent of mind is challenging for the foreign language teachers of foreign origin. To teach any language the first thing is knowledge of appropriate words. This process starts with dictionary. Dictionaries are being used by language students and learners from the past in various ways. As Krashen (1989) quotes that learners carry dictionaries around them not grammar books of the language they intend to learn. Baxter (1980); Luppescu & Day, 1993 have noticed the use of dictionary by foreign language students. There have been various empirical researches done on contribution of dictionaries in language learning and the way dictionaries can be used best for the same. Contextual guessing approach is one of the approaches favored in these studies (Crist, 1981; Crist & Petrone, 1977; Gipe, 1978). The contextual guessing groups read texts that included definitions or examples where they are exposed to dictionary-like situations along with the natural texts (Knight, 1994). Stahl and Fairbanks' (1986) conducted meta-analysis of L1-based vocabulary studies. Their study revealed that combined approach is more effective in language learning than single approach of dictionary or contextual guessing. Hulstijn, 1993; Knight, 1994; Laufer & Hadar, 1997; Laufer & Hill, 2000; Laufer & Kimmel, 1997 in their studies found that interest in dictionary research in L2 contexts have increased in recent years. Knight (1994) discovered in his studies that incidental vocabulary learning through contextual guessing helps not only remembering words immediately but also the retention of word meanings is longer than using dictionary or guessing only. Knight also found that high verbal ability students would look up a word even when they have successfully guessed its meaning. This finding was in line with Hulstijn’s (1993) works. By contrast, Thompson (1987) argued against monolingual dictionaries and supported the development of "a new generation of learners' bilingual dictionaries" (p. 286). He pointed out that monolingual dictionaries tend to be circular in their definitions, e.g., laugh, amuse, amusement and humor are normally used in each other's definitions. (Pg. 286) The recent learning process with incidental vocabulary concepts have changed and become more demanding than the traditional studies where learning involves learners being told to read for comprehension of the passage or article. Beyond reading in recent year emphasis had been on looking up new words in dictionaries for comprehension (Laufer & Hill, 2000) and recalling and retelling these words (Joe, 1998). This becomes more demanding where vocabulary items will be learned through reading. According to Laufer and Hulstijn's (2001) this directs another fruitful line of research. With the development of technology and the need of language studies have combined together to facilitate learning. The development of electronic dictionaries was meant to meet various language related demands of learners and users. Hulstijn, 1993; Knight, 1994; Koren, 1999; Laufer & Hill, 2000; Lomicka, 1998; Roby, 1999 and others have mentioned online dictionaries or vocabulary glosses integration with the language learning software and web pages. "Perhaps we have become more skeptical about a single most appropriate dictionary format, perhaps we are more wary about dogmatic statements on which dictionary is good for you, and realize that more research is needed on what real dictionary users do in real situations of dictionary look-up" (Hartmann, 1991, p. 79). According to Krashen (1989) incidental vocabulary learning is better than intentional vocabulary learning in vocabulary building process. In Krashen studies one of the drawbacks was the assumption that in first and second language spelling and vocabulary are developed are similar. Reading ability of a foreign student will be limited than that of the native speaker. In one of the studies by Haynes (1990) that students with different orthography had more problems in learning when the L2 learning and this study was incorporated with research on Chinese EFL students learning English. The differences in writing system posed serious challenges to the development of reading ability. This impacted vocabulary learning through reading process. Zimmerman (1994) conducted studies which revealed that 3 hours a week of explicit vocabulary instruction along with some self-selected reading was more effective than reading alone. As per Paribakht and Wesche (1997) reading added with explicit instruction helps in gaining superior results over a period of three months. In a series of longitudinal case studies, Parry (1991, 1993, 1997) went a step further and demonstrated how exactly a combination of incidental and intentional learning of vocabulary during reading 1) could be possible, and 2) helped the overall development of both L2 vocabulary and academic success in L2. Parry (1997), for example, studied the vocabulary learning strategies of two ESL learners at Hunter College of the City University of New York in reading their anthropology textbook. Both learners went through intentional as well as incidental learning. Laufer & Hulstijn, (2001) suggested that in the incidental learning different levels of task involves. They have also suggested a need to combine incidental and intentional learning for a vocabulary learning strategy. Nation (2001) and Schmitt (2000) supported this view in their books on vocabulary acquisition. Ellis (1994) pointed out different aspects of vocabulary need different acquisition mechanisms and strategies for language learning. Lexical phrases, lexicalized chunks have fascinated theorist and researchers from a long period of time (Lewis, 1993; Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992; Willis, 1990). In the works of Arnaud & Savignon, 1997; Bahns & Eldaw, 1993; Cowie, 1988; Sansome, 2000 multiword units, and collocations have given emphasis. Lewis, 1997; McKay, 1980 studied that finding patterns of multiword units from authentic contexts and their respective frequency of use have become simple due to the availability of computer-generated corpora. According to Sansome (2000) pedagogical suggestions are either in favor of inductive examples or explicit and deductive types of examples. Awareness and retention are two kinds of learning strategies mentioned in the works of Arnaud and Savignon (1997, p.168) for the complex lexical unit studies. Nelson (1995) mentioned the impact of cultural differences in the personal styles of learning among individuals. An underlying assumption of Swales' (1977) discussion of ESP in the Middle East at that time is that it was an unquestioningly good service for all involved. Possible conflicts are not acknowledged, as if the interests of; for example, the British Council and undergraduate students in these countries were perfectly aligned, with everyone benefiting equally. This assumption is part of what I call an “ideology of pragmatism” Learning new language is based on individual needs. It is influenced by the requirement of particular language in society or work, culture, instructor, available material and resources and individual learner. The communicative language teaching (CLT) have seen transformation from 1970’s to today where it communicative-style teaching, authentic language use and classroom exchanges were quite popular (Savignon, 1991) it was teacher centric while today it is student centric and one of the most practiced language teaching methods in the world. IV. Task-Based Language Teaching Different types of task materials, task purposes, and tasks at various difficulty levels demand different learner strategies. For example, learning words in a word list is different from learning the same words in a passage. Remembering a word meaning is different from learning to use the same word in real life situations. Likewise, guessing from context would mean different things for texts of different levels of new word density. ( Yongqi Gu) Cohen (1998) distinguished language learning strategies and language use strategies. According to Cohen language learning strategies involve strategies for learning tasks like remembering while language use strategies are strategies for language use like communicating as in an L2. It should be noted that this conception of "task" is in line with the traditional, broader understanding of task as in Flavell (1979), Wenden (1987), and Williams and Burden (1997), and is different from the more recent and narrower definition of "task" in "task-based" approaches to language teaching and learning (e.g., Nunan, 1989). (Yongqi Gu) According to Green and Meara (1995) the software development in the learning process was due to the desire to ease it. Vocabulary building has not been given adequate or prominent place in the syllabus of language learning by language teachers. Traditionally teaching vocabulary meant list of paired words with translations which was probably the reason could not be followed. Schmitt, (1997) mentioned that drills, rote memorization and related techniques can be useful even today. There have been various researches done on the size and difficulty levels of various word lists and level of difficulty of the words of these lists. In one study Crothers and Suppes (1967) examined list sizes ranging from 18 to 300 words. They discovered that with difficult words small list sizes were better while with easy words the list size can be large and efficient. Any list containing many difficult words will be difficult to study while with easy words list of 100 words can be studied at one time. There are many semantic based strategies used by various learners in learning vocabulary and language. Unfortunately studies conducted for this particular issue are limited in numbers. Academicians like Crow and Quigley have provided empirical evidences for such studies while other researchers like Higa, 1963; Nation, 1994; Tinkham, 1993; Waring, 1997 and others have warned against studying closely related word at the same time as it increases risk of confusion in retaining the meaning of each word. Nation (1990) suggested that group of related items receives same response from learner and such tasks help in the learning processes as mentioned by Crow and Quigley (1985). V. Learning in CALL classes Computer Assisted Language Learning or CALL has been developed to for the language teaching and learning. Levy (1997) provides the following succinct definition of CALL: Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) may be defined as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning". The term CALL came into practice in the early 1980 when it replaced the older term CALI (Computer Assisted Language Instruction).CALI was replaced by CALL because it was more teacher centric rather than learner centric approach. Alternative term to CALL was TELL in late 1980s which stands for Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL). Baxter (1980) described one common problem amongst EFL students not being able to access a word in speech and lacking the ability to circumvent that word by providing a definition in the target language. Bensoussan & Laufer, 1984; Haynes, 1993; Kelly, 1990; Schatz & Baldwin, 1986 and others in their work on EFL/ESL studies suggested that learners are often unable to guess the meaning of an unknown word from a text. Their studies suggested that L2 learners are less effective guessers and incidental learner due to their inadequate grasp of target language skills whereas beginning L2 learners will face more trouble in making sense of new words and their contexts with much more trouble learning vocabulary incidentally due to their lack of basic language skills in the target language. Vocabulary acquisition research in the linguistics tradition has largely concentrated on vocabulary (target: what is to be learned; or product: what is learned) rather than acquisition (how is vocabulary learned, the learning/acquisition process) (Crow, 1986; Meara, 1980) (Cited by Yongqi Gu) Nation (1982) and Meara (1996) have observed vocabulary learning to be an on-going process of learning. Developing a functional lexicon is challenging as this contains morphological, semantic, pragmatic and emotional connections which requires time and effort consistently. Building vocabulary is an ongoing process and so is the language learning process. VI. CALL and its effect on word retention Ellis (1994) has considered the semantic aspect of vocabulary acquisition. The strategies of learning task centers should be based on frequency, recency and regularity of practice for the acquisition of automaticity of vocabulary use. The words coming frequently in front of the learner will have more chances of retention. Segalowitz, Watson, and Segalowitz (1995) in their studies have emphasized on the attainment of lexical automaticity to produce valuable insights. Watkins and Biggs (1996) in their studies found impact of culture on the conceptions of study and concluded that similar strategy may be executed in different ways in different culture based on their educational traditions. A learner will be able to retain more when s/he is able to associate her/himself with the word, it’s meaning or related task. Crothers and Suppes (1967) discovered that almost all of their participants remembered all 108 Russian-English word pairs after 7 repetitions, and about 80% of 216 word pairs were learned by most participants after 6 repetitions. Similarly, Lado, Baldwin and Lobo (1967) presented their intermediate level college students of Spanish with a list of 100 words, and found that only one exposure sufficed for an average of 95% recognition and 65% recall. In general, results on this issue show that, if remembering word pairs is the aim, a surprising amount can be learned within a relatively short time (Thorndike, 1908; Webb, 1962), and not many repetitions are needed before the L2-L1 word pairs can be remembered. (Yongqi Gu) In other study conducted on Japanese EFL students by Day et al. concluded that "exposure to previously unknown or difficult words through sustained silent reading for entertainment by Japanese EFL students has a positive effect on their ability to recognize these words in a vocabulary test". Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996; Watanabe, 1997 found that bilingual word list helps in long term retention of word list of numerous words.Schneiderman (1997) work shows the potential advantages of systems allowing direct manipulation of data as opposed to systems which are not flexible in use or for change. The another factor playing crucial role in the learning process and which is one of the most complex factor to study or research is ‘intensity of motivation of the learner’. This is conditional and situational factor which is different from one point of time to another. Hence finding appropriate response of study is always uncertain for this factor. Mondria (1996) focuses on the presentation method to the learner and in Mondria’s view giving meaning to the learner is more efficient method for teaching new words than having learner to learn contextually in the less time. VII. E-dictionary and its Uses In 1993 Graney and Mokhtari suggested that reading gets benefited by practice of high-frequency vocabulary through computer-assisted learning. In vocabulary learning there are various ways of instructions. These instruction methods are Paper and Pencil (P&P), Computer-based Word-for-word (CW), Computer-based word-for-word plus Picture (CP) and Computer-based Context (CC). In one of the researches based on the above mentioned methods results showed that the computer based context (CC) method was more effective than any other group in the retention test analysis. The retention of the learners with CC method was much better than P&P, CW and CP methods. Further evaluation of electronic dictionary has again provided an effective tool of learning. It is more effective than paper dictionaries or conventional dictionaries. Paper dictionary on the one hand provides printed information from one end to another end in a sequence, usually alphabetical sequence. The search process for any word in conventional dictionary is longer than that of electronic dictionary. In the electronic dictionary one can find the meaning of any word by using the search option easily. Apart from that electronic dictionary offered auditory information, which is very important for any linguistic learner. This can help in developing proper pronunciation of the words. Electronic dictionary provides meaning of words in text, graphics and sound. These are diverse ways of learning that have been incorporated in electronic dictionary. This flexibility is possible only with the e-dictionary. Zähner, Gupta and Olohan (1994) note that electronic dictionaries can "start with essential data only and then allow users to progress from there to explore the lexical information in as much detail as they require and the lexicon can offer" (Zähner et al 1994 p. 77). Aust, Kelley, and Roby (1993) stated that electronic references like on-line dictionaries and glossaries represent "one of the most rapidly growing forms of electronic text". This is being accepted due to its user friendliness and diverse ways which it incorporates like audio, graphics and text. Chun & Plass, 1996a, 1996b; Hulstijn, 1993; Knight, 1994 and several others have investigated the effects of dictionary use. These researchers looked up behavior of readers on various learning process like vocabulary learning, reading comprehensions and pronunciation improvements etc. It is not only students and learners who use these dictionaries but also researchers and academicians use electronic dictionary for their work. Knight (1994) also used a computerized dictionary in a study on incidental vocabulary learning from context and the effect of dictionary access on reading comprehension. The computer was programmed to record the number of words each student looked up and the amount of time each student spent reading an article. (Son;2001) This helped in understanding the improvements in the area of computerized dictionary. This also helped in understanding common difficult areas among students. Students may not retain meaning of any specific word by one time reading in certain cases the frequency of the student to view that particular word to retain the meaning will be easily available here. Reinking and Rickman (1990) in their L1 research investigated the affects of displaying texts on a computer screen that provided the meanings of difficult words on the vocabulary leaning and comprehension of intermediate-grade readers'. The study revealed that this has a significant impact on the vocabulary learning and comprehension abilities of the readers. According to Leffa (1992) computer-mediated electronic glossary are more efficient than a traditional bilingual dictionary. It allows students at beginning level to understand 38% more passages in 50% lesser time. This was a result of assessment of the effects of an electronic glossary on reading comprehensions in a study conducted on English as a foreign language (EFL). The retention increases in the use of electronic glossary or electronic dictionary. In other study by Aust et al.'s study (1993) there was no significant difference on comprehension when they conducted a comparative study of hyper reference and paper dictionary use. This was based on the measures of consultation frequency, study time, efficiency, and comprehension. They used the term hyper-reference, which means "an electronic reference aid that offers immediate access to supportive information with a clear and direct return path to the target information. VIII. Effect of E-Dictionary on Vocabulary Achievement There has been various research work done to study the impact of the E-dictionary on vocabulary achievements. However these studies did not reveal any definite conclusion on the comprehension side of the language study but it indicated that in vocabulary building e-dictionary definitely helps. The results show that the time required in the use of e-dictionary is lesser than conventional methods. E-dictionary offers various means of learning and retentions. The presentation methods have been different for each CALL software and e-dictionary. Visuals and audio of E-dictionary helps in understanding meanings of the words. This also helps in higher retention of various words. Learner find it user friendly and it takes lesser time than conventional method. It also appears to be more interesting when one can find the word without following the traditional path of sequential search in paper dictionary. It is also available in various languages where learner can learn foreign language with the help of his native language. The electronic dictionary offers more flexibility in terms of use and understanding than the conventional method. In most of the methods the retention is most when the graphical and audio is incorporated with it. Like in class students tend to remember more things that they do while study alone or with the use of objects or pictures they retain more. This is the reason why most of kids book have more picture than text. In the traditional paper dictionary there are certain limitations i.e. cost per page of the conventional dictionary would increase if the images or extra pages are added. Even the width and weight of the book will increase. This will result in inconvenience in use. There is no option of audio at all in conventional dictionaries hence students have to rely on the instructions only. They actually do not hear the actual pronunciation. This is available feature in almost all the electronic dictionaries today. The visuals or graphics are more effective and helps in understanding the meaning. The pronunciation can be improved significantly with these dictionaries. The system requirements are not complicated to install e-dictionary. It is very basic. With e-dictionary students requires less supervision or support by teachers. The only thing needed is the knowledge of computers basics and search abilities which can be facilitated by teacher. Students can utilize their time more effectively to read more in the same time with the help of e-dictionary. IX. Retention of EFL Saudi Students English is one of the official languages on Saudi Arabia. The growth and acceptance of English in Saudi Arabia is due to the increasing employment opportunities with English language qualification. But still English is a foreign language for the students over there. Its education starts very late as compared to Arabic which is the native language. Apart from that, most of the EFL/ESL teachers belong to different nations. The socio-cultural differences, attitudinal differences and perceptional differences among teachers and students are challenging factors for the teachers to use effective teaching techniques and respecting all the differences at the same time. There have been very limited studies conducted on the influences of hyper reference on the retention of students in Arabia. Teacher responses to computer use is also mixed; for example, Walker (1994) describes teacher attitudes to the introduction of CALL in Saudi Arabia as generally positive, but with hesitation on the part of some teachers about turning over control to students.( Warschauer;1998) One of the studies conducted among Ukrainian, Saudi Arabian and Russian students for the cross cultural studies revealed that some of the difficulties of the Saudi Arabian students were lack interest and slow typing speed. This was creating difficulties in their hyper referencing. The role of instructor was very important in the case of Saudi students in the study. Saudi students have been apprehensive initially but later on they clarified their doubts with their instructors. The retention of words was more. Gradually Saudi students had developed interest. It is oblivious that in the information rich time strategies memorization is less important. The need here is ability of students to respond and adapt with changes. The role of teacher has been changed to facilitator. This offers individuality, which matters a lot in the Saudi Arabian culture. This is a culture in which everything is based on gender and pardha and all systems exist. Students might be apprehensive in talking to their teacher due to the socio-cultural differences but the computer offers them individuality and privacy they need. According to Brown (1991) there is more need of activities that encourage students to explore. Students need to be and be creators of language rather than passive recipients of it. Learning should come from the active participation of students rather than a passive act. X. Merits and Demerits of CALL Dictionary in EFL Classes There are various benefits of CALL dictionary in EFL classes. It offers multimodal practice. It offers instant feedback. It answers to the individual needs of each student. Student can work in group or on individual basis in a class or any other place. It has fun element with it. The graphics and audio part of it have added value to the learning process and offered an innovative way to learn difficult words and their meanings too. It offers variety of learning styles and presentation. It explains with examples. It helps in developing skills of the learner. It contains large amount of data and information. It is available in various languages. Pronunciation is particularly getting benefited in this. As one know that pronunciation of the same word may differ in US and UK. Most of the electronic dictionary offer pronunciation in both forms. This helps students to develop their English speaking skill accordingly. Some programs incorporate some sort of voice recording and playback to let students compare their recordings. CALL facilitates experimental learning. It motivates students, enhances student achievements by helping them building self instruction strategies and self confidence. It offers authenticated materials to study. The materials are accessible twenty four hours at relatively low cost. It provides greater interaction and helpful for the students who are shy or self centered. Some of the limitations of CALL are financial barriers, availability of required software and hardware, technical knowledge, theoretical knowledge and acceptance of technology. The interest among students is must to be created. CALL dictionaries if are out of budget of the prospective student than the student will not benefit with it as much as s/he can be. A country like Saudi Arabia where the whole sole objective of learning English is to get better jobs it becomes very important that low cost facilities are available. Apart from that the instructors or teachers should have adequate technical and theoretical knowledge to encourage and motivate students to use CALL. Students should be given a proper introduction with software and should be encouraged to do experiments with that so that they can explore more within the CALL dictionaries. XI. Conclusion Technology on one hand has provided an effective means to learn and develop one’s skills. It requires proper introduction and facilitator, who can support this learning process of language study. In the area of language studies technology has been a significant tool because. It offers more than the traditional means. CALL e-dictionaries have been useful for not only beginners but also for researchers and academicians. Some studies revealed that students of Saudi Arabia have been benefited by the use of technology in their language studies. However limited studies have been conducted in this area. The roles of teachers have been significantly important to introduce the CALL dictionaries to students. There are certain demerits of CALL as well. These are financial, technological and personal to the individuals. The acceptance of technology one of the major issues n this area. However the retention with the e-dictionaries is more than that of traditional dictionaries. XII. Reference Ani, Bigelow, Gillen F, Gillen S, Larson TJ, Lipsky GA, Mathews, ATJ & Royce C H, 1959, Saudi Arabia, Its People Its Society, Its Culture, HRAF Press:New Haven, CT Aust, R., Kelley, M. J., & Roby, W. (1993). The use of hyper-reference and conventional dictionaries. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41 (4), 63-73 Benesch ,S (2001) Critical English for Academic Purposes: Theory, Politics, and Practice, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. NJ. Publication: Mahwah Bensoussan, M., & Laufer, B. (1984). Lexical guessing in context in EFL reading comprehension. Journal of Research in Reading, 7, 15-32. 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