Teaching English as a Second Language - Term Paper Example

Teaching English as a Second Language This essay examines issues related to vocabulary in the sphere of learning English as a second language. The teaching of vocabulary has not been given a great deal of importance earlier while teaching English other than incidentally. However, the importance of vocabulary mastery in effective learning of a second language is being recognized, together with the challenges that are presented in effectively teaching vocabulary, although existing research in language learning largely relies upon mastery of words as an assessment tool. This essay examines the development of the importance of vocabulary teaching and the methods that have been found to be successful in achieving competency in English, which are to be recommended for use by future teachers. The strategies that have been used by students and teacher sin the mastery of vocabulary and the effective means for testing student competency in these areas are also subjects that are covered in this essay. The development of attention to teaching of vocabulary: Researchers have emphasized how important vocabulary is to the effective acquisition of a foreign language and the fact that scant attention has been paid to vocabulary in past years to the detriment of learners.1 The actual practice that has been followed is for teachers to focus upon grammar skills and communicative strategies while vocabulary has been a largely neglected area, in the mistaken notion that it is something that will be acquired automatically as a natural part of the language learning process. The prevalent belief was also that learning too much vocabulary during the initial stages of language learning would give students a misplaced sense of false security.2 The use of vocabulary instruction was limited to the extent that it was required in order to facilitate the learning of grammar3. Vocabulary was taught only in connection with the functional aspects of the language and this was not a specialized area of instruction in the teaching of English as a second language. The beginnings of the shift in emphasis to teaching vocabulary first began with the development of a list of 850 words that were referred to as Basic English, although this list was later expanded in 1953 to about 2000 words which served the purpose for most general usage.4 The modern trend in vocabulary that has been identified by several researchers is that words are best learnt in context rather than as lists of isolated words and that they are better learnt in chunks of words which would also include their idiomatic use5. The question of whether repetitive learning serves to enhance a student’s ability to learn and recognize a word was addressed by Nation6 who was of the view that in order for a student to effectively learn and know a word in English, it is necessary that the student should be aware of its meaning, the way it is spoken and written, word usage and its related associations. He highlights the fact that merely knowing a word does not offer the guarantee that the student will be able to use it fluently and appropriately. He has therefore devised a list of eight categories that must be satisfied by the student before proficiency can be established, and this includes not only the features already identified above but also aspects such as the parts of speech and their derivative forms, frequency and associations of words, as also stylistic restrictions. Learning vocabulary: While initial vocabulary skills are best taught to students through direct means such as repetition, Coady7 has pointed out that several frequently used, simple words can be learnt by students through incidental reading. As learning of vocabulary progresses, the mode of learning will shift to an indirect style, so that the result will be a “gradual but steady incremental growth of vocabulary knowledge through meaningful interaction with the text.” 8 Xiaoping9 has conducted a study on the appropriate methods that would be appropriate for teaching English to students in China. He points out how the basic principle that has been the underlying foundation of teaching English as a second language is getting the students to achieve communicative competence in the language through classroom interactions that reflect real life situations. Care is taken to ensure that there is a sufficient degree of exposure to the target language through the acquisition of listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. However, he also identifies the significant disadvantage of this method, in that it focuses on the ability to communicate and does not lay adequate stress on grammar, vocabulary and the form of the target language, as a result of which the ultimate result that is achieved may not be a positive one. Due to the sentence based approach of the Communicative language teaching techniques, the student’s acquisition skills are slower and their knowledge of grammar may be flawed. As opposed to such communicative competence methods, traditional means of teaching language do focus on formal grammar and vocabulary exercises, thereby providing a better grasp of the target language. Xiaoping also points out how significantly the language skills of students can be improved through the introduction of vocabulary practice and translation exercises. He offers the view that the method of teaching English that requires communicative competence can be considerably enhanced through the addition of vocabulary teaching. The focus and emphasis on grammar and vocabulary to allow a student to gain a good grasp of the target language is in line with Noam Chomsky’s theories on language which stress the role of intelligence in the acquisition of language. He identifies the distinction that evolved between language knowledge and language practice, manifested in traditional teaching methods vis a vis the acquisition of communicative competence. On this basis therefore, Xiaoping has advocated and tested the “communicative-cognition” method in the acquisition of language skills, with the teacher functioning as a facilitator, helping students to learn and acquire a greater commands over words in the target language. The teacher should clarify the meanings of words and the subtle distinctions between different words in the target language. He also recommends that simple but authentic reading materials written in the original target language be used rather than material specifically designed for those learning it as a second language. Other studies on language teaching including vocabulary: Ennis10 has discussed the use of a television viewing and feedback approach in teaching English, thereby enhancing the grasp of vocabulary through a combines listening, reading, writing and recall approach. He strongly recommends the use of the feedback method because it helps the students with their memory powers and in recalling words and vocabulary that they have learnt through the facility of remembering it again. He also recommends that students be encouraged to discuss words and their meanings and to maintain written journals, since this procedure proves extremely helpful in aiding students to discuss, appreciate and understand the cultural contexts within which specific vocabulary is used. In a study conducted by Norris11 of writing skills in English using Chinese doctoral students, methods of feedback however did not prove to be completely successful in terms of improvements in writing skills. The method for learning language was through the writing of essays on which extensive suggestions and feedback was provided through the use of un-graded feedback wherein extensive explanations were provided about confusing vocabulary and grammar points. Norris has suggested that the level of meta-linguistic awareness plays a significant role in the relative ease of acquisition of a foreign language. The aim of Norris’ study was to inculcate editing skills in the students in order to help them to identify the language errors in their own writing and rectify them, however the results of the study showed that while content of the material improved, including the sue of more extensive vocabulary, the writing was nevertheless marked by non native constructions, thereby indicating that a cognitive element is also at play in the acquisition of skills in a foreign language. Therefore, this study appears to suggest that meta linguistic awareness of language and its finer aspects such as the distinctions in words and vocabulary, grammar tools, etc may be an aid in acquiring skills in English when it is a foreign language. However, the efficacy of Ennis’ methods in using movies as a medium to teach English and to enhance the vocabulary skills of the students among the acquisition of other language tools, was corroborated in a study conducted by Katchen,12 who found that using English mystery movies as a tool to facilitate teaching of English as a second language was very effective. A part of the program also included the preparation of transcripts in order to aid and enhance the acquisition of vocabulary skills in the language, especially in the use of idioms and other similar tools. She recommends showing films in short segments, since students who are learning English as a foreign language may find it difficult to concentrated for extended periods of time. When discussions, explanations and assignments are prepared with the aid of a transcript, it is very helpful to students in learning vocabulary skills and acquiring practice in mastery of words and idioms. Teaching Vocabulary: Corroborating the views of Xiaoping13, Katchen also recommends that extra attention is given to the acquisition of new vocabulary. However, new words need not necessarily be presented in a bilingual form with their meanings provided in the native language. Her recommendation is to allow students to guess the meanings of some of the words from the context within which they appear. According to Katchen, this not only helps to liven up the class and make it interesting for students at the bizarre meanings they come up with, but it also helps to loosen the strong reliance that some foreign students place upon dictionaries in order to derive the meaning of words, since dictionaries may sometimes face serious limitations in providing the exact meaning of words in the context within which they may appear. The use of films, including critique of films as a means to teach English, has also been recommended by other researchers.14 Seal15 has divided vocabulary teaching into the “planned” and “unplanned categories. The former, as the name implies, is one where the teacher has prepared a list of selected words that she intends to take up in the classroom as a part of the language teaching. However unplanned vocabulary teaching occurs during the course of a lesson when other supplementary materials or modes of teaching such as films, etc may be in use and the usage of words pops up incidentally during the course of such presentations/teaching. Seal refers to planned vocabulary teaching as entering a classroom “with an item or a set of vocabulary items that s/he has decided beforehand will be taught during the course of the lesson” while unplanned teaching is the “extemporaneous teaching of problem vocabulary items that come up unexpectedly without warning in the course of a lesson.” 16 In order to anticipate and prepare effectively for the eventuality of unplanned vocabulary teaching, Seal recommends that the teacher utilize the technique of the three C’s, or Convey, Check and Consolidate. The first aspect would be to convey the meaning of the word to the students through the use of teaching aids, such as explanations, flash cards, other visual aids or presenting the words in the context in which they are used. The next stage is to ensure that the students have accurately and correctly understood the meaning of the word as explained by the teacher, Seal recommends that the teacher administer some simple tests such as matching the words, or filling up the blanks in order to satisfy herself that the students have grasped the new word. The last stage of the process is the consolidation stage where the teacher must build upon the understanding that the student has gained of the word and ask them to relate it in some personal aspect or some proper context to build upon that understanding and consolidate it for future use. Zimmerman17 recommends that students be encouraged to develop the ability to generate their own vocabulary, since they will gradually evolve from a period of structured learning of vocabulary to an unstructured one where they will acquire new words and consolidate them on an independent basis in accordance with their own needs. Zimmerman also recommends that a multi faceted approach be utilized in second language learning, by employing a variety of strategies and not being restricted to any one method of teaching vocabulary. Vocabulary can be taught in the context in which it appears, or in association with other blocks of text or visual media, with the learning experience enriched through associations between old and new words, idiomatic expressions, repeated exposure to words, semantic mapping, dictionary aids and above all, stirring up the individual learner’s own cognitive abilities through the employment of a constructivist framework in order to ensure that the learning process is an interactive one where incoming exterior knowledge is processed in association with already existing information and by exercising the mental faculties and associative abilities of the student in question. Strategies for learning vocabulary: Schmitt and Schmitt18 have discussed various strategies that may be utilized in vocabulary learning, including an analysis and a classification of the possible strategies that are feasible and useful in specific reference to English language learners in Japan. These authors have also identified the shift in learning styles that has taken place in the learning of English as a second language. While traditional methods placed the student in the role of a passive recipient of information, the teaching of language has evolved to incorporate a more constructivist approach, wherein students are expected to participate actively in their own learning process, by assimilating external stimuli and cues into their own framework and mental structure, thereby creating new , complex and individualized learning patterns which are likely to be more effective in the grasp of English as a second language. They have pointed that students who are able to successfully learn foreign languages do not restrict themselves to one particular approach but are able to incorporate multiple strategies into their learning process19. Most of the research that ahs been conducted into the field of learning strategies employed in second language learning have been in the area of vocabulary acquisition, because tasks that require the learning of a specific word are more amenable to research validation as compared to more amorphous learning measures such as level of politeness in a sentence, etc. These authors have examined all research on vocabulary learning strategies and have compiled a list of 36 strategies, which also include successful methods used by students and teachers. Based upon these strategies, they have identified some commonly occurring categories that occur as a part of the schema of these learning strategies. The major strategy is the distinction between “discovering” and “establishing” vocabulary, which was also clarified by Nation20 as being the difference between learning a new word for the first time and then practicing it sufficiently using storage and retrieval encoding methods such that the use and meaning of the word is fully comprehended and processed by the student using his/her inner mental framework and added to the list of established vocabulary. In achieving this status of established vocabulary, students analyzed roots and suffixes of words in order to make intelligent guesses about the meaning of words. While learning a new word for the first time, some of the common learning strategies that were used by students included referring to a dictionary or seeking help or clarification from fellow classmates or teachers as to the meaning of the word. Alternatively, the meaning of the word was understood in the context within which it occurred, either as a part of a picture, a passage or included within speech, which also included guessing the meaning of the word from other words graded according to a similar meaning. (for example, happy, happier, happiest). Once a new word was learnt, students utilized several strategies to establish the word in their memory. Some of these techniques included repetition and memorization of the word, examining the structure of the word and how it is used, using study aids such as flash cards and notes prepared in class on the meanings of words. The learning process was aided by frequent use of the word in daily speech, or by creating a system of associations in the mind through gradable scales or by connecting with particular objects for example sit and chair, in order to cognitively process the word and correlate it into the internal mental framework of the student. Such imaging was one of the successful strategies used by students in order to effectively recall the meaning of a particular word. Other students also used cognates or their knowledge of other languages in order to solidify their recall of the foreign language. Schmitt and Schmitt have also assessed the relative efficacy of these various strategies that students utilize in order to learn English as a second language. They offer the view that according to the research conducted in this area, the efficacy of the strategies employed appear to depend upon the individual personality of the learner, the degree of difficulty of the task being attempted and the learning environment. They have especially highlighted the views of Oxford21 who surveyed all the available literature on the subject and pointed out that to a great degree, the effectiveness of learning will depend upon the individual student – his personality, sex, attitude, learning style, cognitive abilities, self awareness and a variety of other learner attributes. Craik’s Levels of processing Model: However, despite the success factor depending so much on individual learner ability, Schmitt and Schmitt have pointed out that Craik’s Levels of Processing Model22 is a useful tool that may be employed by teachers of English as a second language. This model equates the degree of learning directly to the extent of mental manipulation and processing that is done by the student. Therefore, on this basis, a continuum of learning levels can be developed as follows: Superficial processing/shallow learning Deeper Processing/greater learning Therefore, applying this paradigm, strategies such as learning by rote, or memorizing would fall at the superficial processing level which results in shallow learning, while processing that requires mental engagement such as making associations, understanding meaning in context, etc are likely to result in higher levels of learning and better retention of language learning. This model was applied in Schmitt and Schmitt’s study to Japanese students and their learning of English as a second language, with teachers listing successful and unhelpful strategies in language learning. Among the successful strategies were included verbal and written repetition of words, speaking out the word loud and using it often, preparing notes about the meaning of the word, examining the sound of the word and idioms used with the word, as well as its synonyms and antonyms. However strategies that ranked low on the teacher list included the use of cognates, imaging the word, examining its suffixes and prefixes, using keyword approaches or imaging the meaning of the word. Zimmerman has also examined language learning strategies and has conducted a study in which he asked learners to rank the efficacy of the strategies that they had used to learn a foreign language and his finding also support the contention that the study of roots and affixes of words is the least helpful, followed by studying the dictionary. Strategies ranked higher than these two, in order were as follows: memorizing lists of words, reading of matter that a student enjoys and designing classes where the teacher provides an interactive environment where students can practice the natural usage of the word within a realistic context.23 The study by Schmitt and Schmitt however, revealed the surprising results that the language learning techniques that are ranked at the shallow learning levels are in fact more successful among Oriental students as opposed to those that require enhanced processing and ensure deeper learning. There are deep cultural reasons that underlie this preference and therefore, teachers of the English language to Asian and oriental students would be able to achieve a greater degree of success in their classes, by using some of these methods the students are more familiar and comfortable with. However, the authors emphasize the fact that the teacher of English should not be restricted to only superficial or deeper strategies, but can be flexible in utilizing the best strategy that is effective with a particular group of students. Vocabulary testing: Testing vocabulary poses a challenge in designing an effective method to determine levels of student comprehension of the contextual meanings of words. Traditional approaches to vocabulary testing have utilized a linear method, focused upon merely testing whether the student is cognizant of the word or not. However, it is only recently that more emphasis is being placed upon measuring how well the words have been learnt, which is a more challenging exercise where designing tests are concerned. Schmitt24 has attempted to elucidate upon vocabulary testing for those teachers who are not fully aware of how best to go about it. He outlines a set of principles that teachers can rely upon when designing a vocabulary test. They need to ask themselves the following questions: (a) why is the test being conducted? (b) What are the words to be tested? (c) What specific aspects of the words are to be tested? (d) How can student knowledge of these words be elicited? On the basis of the answers to these questions, the teacher can then set the parameters of the test. For instance, she can decide whether the test is to be a verbal or an oral one, whether it is to be a multiple choice test, or a fill in the blanks variety or a true and false type of test. The purpose of the test therefore becomes very important – for example, most tests of the English language that are used in standardized testing for placement such as the TOEFL focus upon examining the student’s ability to distinguish between a wide general base of words in the target language of English. If however, students from a particular school who have learnt a particular range of vocabulary are being tested, then the words that are selected for testing may be those that have been taught as a part of their course. Taking into consideration Nation’s25 eight point requirement that must be satisfied before a student’s proficiency in the word tested can be established, it is clear that the tests must be designed in such a way as to also test the student’s associative knowledge of the word and all the ramifications that go along with it. Schmitt offers the view that the length of a test is important because the larger the number of test items, the better the picture it will give of the student’s abilities. However, one aspect that must be taken into consideration is that the element of fatigue will affect the student’s performance if the test is too long. Therefore the challenge to the teacher lies in devising a test that incorporates some formats such as formats, or matching the items and filling in the blanks, which allow for a larger proportion of items to be completed within a shorter period. The best designed tests will be those that will prove to be easy for the student who has a good grasp of the words while other students will find it extremely difficult. According to Schmitt, the aspect of a person’s vocabulary size must also be taken into consideration and the dictionary is generally used for this purpose, by selecting words form every tenth page or so and then multiplying by the number of word sin the dictionary to arrive at the vocabulary size,. However a Schmitt points out, this method has drawbacks because the vocabulary size of native speakers may vary widely. Therefore a better method is to divide words into those that are more frequently used and therefore learnt easier vis a vis those words which are less frequently used, and a relevant number of choices of words are used in testing students in each category of word. Thus each section is evaluated according to its degree of frequency of use and accuracy of responses, thereby providing a better picture of the learner’s ability. Cronbach26 has advocated a vocabulary test wherein multiple true or false tests are used and they all ask test questions about the same word. Using this as a basis, Schmitt has designed a vocabulary test for use with students of English as a second language that is so designed that it tests for the criteria identified by Nation27 and using Cronbach’s testing criteria. New technologies for language learning: Egbert has drawn attention to new technologies that are available for language learning, both in U.S. schools and abroad, however these are not yet being effectively utilized in language programs28. Two of the new technologies identified by Egbert are (a) Wireless sub notebooks: Egbert cites the Sony Vaio Picturebook, which is an example of the kind of computer equipment that is now available to facilitate language learning without being hindered by the need to hook up using wires, therefore students can learn freely at any time, anywhere. (b) Tablet sized PC’s: This is also a extension of the same kind of wireless learning that is now available. They are bigger than PDAs and do not have a keyboard, rather they use a stylus, with the user tapping on icons in order to open them rather than using a mouse. This method of learning is very useful for language learners since they are not obliged to first master keyboard skills before being able to participate effectively in a computer based teaching approach. Conclusions: On the basis of the above, it may be concluded that the importance of vocabulary learning in mastery of English is being recognized. While initial teaching approaches were more formal and focused on learning grammar and the structure of the language, later developments included a communicative competence approach. However, recent trends appear to suggest that a combination of both these techniques is likely to work best for the benefit of students. Adopting a purely traditional approach does not successfully train students in communicating in that language while the communicative approach results in a slower and shallower grasp of a language and is not beneficial to the student in the long run. Therefore a combined approach that also includes mastery of an extensive vocabulary is an essential part of successfully learning a second language. Various strategies have been used by students and teachers in attaining a successful grasp on vocabulary. Some of the methods utilized include repetition, learning words by examining the roots and affixes of the words, imaging words and their meanings, learning words in context and relating them with known symbols or associations in order to consolidate the grasp over the meaning of the word. Some researchers have also been successfully use a movie based approach with written feedback in order to enhance grasp of words and their meanings while other teachers have used flash cards and roots of words with a lower relative degree of success. On the other hand, in terms of acquisition of writing skills, the general conclusion based upon the research presented in this essay appears to be that feedback may not be effective in all cases, in overcoming the barrier of cognates and the interference of the native language with the acquisition of linguistic skills in another language. The model that is presented in this essay and represents effective learning in terms of whether it is shallow or deep clearly specifies that methods such as repetition and learning by rote tend to come under the category of superficial learning since they may be easily forgotten by students. However learning that involves a cognitive aspect, such as learning words by association or in context is likely to impart a higher degree of learning. But in the case of oriental students it appears that the superficial methods are not only more effective but students also tend to be more comfortable in using such methods. Part of the reason for this has been ascribed to the cultural factors that condition learning and the traditional practices of learning by rote. In general, some methods of learning vocabulary are rated as ineffective by both students and teachers – for example learning the roots and suffixes of words, or learning the meaning of words through imaging them. Other methods are rated highly, such as learning words in context or learning the use of words through interactive sessions with the teacher in realistic situations that a student could conceivably come across in their lives. It is not only important to consider the means and methods which can best assure that students are able to effectively grasp language skills, it is also necessary to test the skills and to ensure that students have successfully comprehended the meanings of words within the context in which they appear. The presentations above have also identified that testing procedures need to be as exhaustive as possible, yet be designed in such a way that they can be completed within a designated time period. Therefore the recommended test methods are a combination of various kinds of testing tools such as matching words, filling out blanks, etc as opposed to the traditional bilingual presentation of words, so that the students comprehension can also be tested through their ability to make the necessary associations in understanding the meaning of words. Therefore, it may be concluded that what is important for the Teacher of English as a Second Language to know is that there is no one method that may be applauded as being the best one in every situation. In some cases, teaching vocabulary through superficial techniques such as repetition etc may be useful while in others, better and longer lasting results may be obtained through using other means such as figuring out the meanings of words in the context they appear or exercising the student’s mental faculties in making associations between words and their ramifications. Sometimes, a combination of the two methods may be the most effective, while in other cases the TESOL may find that one or the other method works better. This is largely dependent upon the kind of class the teacher is working with and the cultural and other aspects governing the student body. However there are certain general trends that have been identified in this essay which could be effective to the teacher in enhancing the development of vocabulary, while other methods have been found to be ineffective in practice. The most important factor that will affect learning is individual student capacity, which a teacher must bear in mind while teaching English as a second language. References: * Cronbach, L.J., 1943. “Measuring knowledge of precise word meaning.” Journal of Educational research , 36(7): 528-534. * Egbert, Joy, 2002. “New technologies for Language Learning.” ERIC Document No: ED 472 794, pp 16 * Ennis, Mark, 1997. “Television, Dialogue Journals and Feedback in the ESL Classroom.” Journal of TESOL, France, 4: 30-43 * Guest, M, 1997. “Film Dynamics in the English language classroom.” In Katchen, J.E. (edn) “The Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on English teaching.” Taipei, Crane Publishing Company, pp 171-182. * Katchen, Johanna E, 1998. “Who dunnit? Language activities for mystery movies.” Revised version of Paper presented at annual Korea TESOL Conference, Seoul. * Kaprowski, M, 2005. “Investigating the usefulness of lexical phrases in contemporary course books.” ELT Journal, 59(4): 322-332 * Norris, Suzanne, 1995. “Responding to the ESL Writer: A Teacher-as-researcher case study.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Sunshine State teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.” Jacksonville, FL. ERIC Document no: ED 388 109 * O’Dell, F, 1997. “Incorporating Vocabulary into the syllabus” In Schmitt, N and McCarthy, M (eds), “Vocabulary and Language teaching.” New York: Longman, pp 62-82 * O’Malley, J.M. and Chamot, A.U, 1990. “Learning strategies in Second Language Acquisition.” Cambridge University Press * Oxford, R, 1989. “Use of language learning strategies. A synthesis of studies with implications for strategy training.” System, 17(2). * Seal, B.D, 1991. “ Vocabulary Learning and teaching.” IN Celce-Murcia, M, 1991. “Teaching English as a foreign language” Boston: Heinle and Heinle, pp 296-311 * Schmitt, Norbert and Schmitt, Diane Rae, 1993. “Identifying and Assessing Vocabulary learning Strategies.” Thai TESOL Bulletin , 5(4): 27-33 * Schmitt, Norbert, 1994. “Vocabulary testing: Questions for test development with six examples of tests of vocabulary size and depth.” Thai TESOL Bulletin, 6(2): 9-16 * Xiaoqing, Liao, 1996. “Tradition and Innovation: A new way to explore a TESOL Method.” Information Analyses, Available from ERIC, Document No: ED 397 653 * Zimmerman, C.B., 1997. “Historical trends in second language vocabulary instruction.” In Coady, J and Huckin, T (edn) “Second language vocabulary acquisition.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 5-19. Read More