Definition of Hegemony - Essay Example

?In this paper I shall be endorsing the position that Shakespeare rightly enjoys the position of hegemony that has been accorded to him in the English literary canon, cemented by his reputation as a dramatist and a poet over centuries. Shakespeare is perhaps the most influential writer of all times and the importance give to him can be gauged in a way by the emphasis given to his texts even today, be it from high schools, colleges or universities, to television or cinema adaptations or even as examples of fine writing. The Oxford Dictionary of English defines ‘hegemony’ as “leadership or dominance, especially by one state or social group over others” (Soanes and Stevenson, 2003, p. 805). The origins of the word hegemony can be traced to the mid16th century from the Greek word hegemonia, which itself is a combination of hegemon meaning ‘leader’ and hegeisthai which means ‘to lead’ (Soanes and Stevenson, 2003, p. 805). Interestingly, Shakespeare himself was alive during this period. The term ‘literary canon’ is however, far older and was originally used in the context of the books of the Bible that were deemed genuine and possessing authority, but whose meanings were later expanded to include other writings. This literary canon now includes works by Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Dickens, Dante, and all such authors who are seen to be writers of the classics and worthy of serious academic attention. Writers who have been given canonical status are generally celebrated names with universal acclaim (Stevens, 2007). It is true that Shakespeare holds a hegemonic position within the literary canon, but it is not without reason. It can be justified in many ways. To say that he had creative writing ability would be an understatement seeing the enormity of his written work - drama or poetry - and the consistency that he maintains in his writing throughout. Shakespeare’s popularity can also quite simply be attributed to his enormous popularity among lovers of literature over the four centuries following his death and that popularity beyond generations alone validating and cementing his reputation as one of the best if not the best dramatist of all time. A point to be kept in mind is that the rise in Shakespeare's popularity to the reaches of being called 'hegemonic' is a phenomenon that started to occur after his death and not during his lifetime. This lends more credence to the fact that sheer popularity among his audience has more to do with why Shakespeare is the subject of this paper. That raises the question of 'What is the reason of Shakespeare's universal appeal?'. And truly it is an intriguing question because it brings one to contemplate over the reasons how an unknown country boy from Stratford-upon-Avon, poor and poorly educated according to the standards of his age arrives at the great city of London and goes to work at odd jobs in a theater. In a year or two he is associated with scholars and dramatists, the masters of their age, writing plays of kings and clowns, of gentlemen and heroes and noble women, all of whose lives he seems to know by intimate association. . . Play after play runs from his pen, mighty dramas of human life and character following one another so rapidly that good work seems impossible; yet they stand the test of time, and their poetry is still unrivaled in any language. (Long) If we look at the age in which Shakespeare was writing, we learn that he was not the sole progenitor of the age's literary vitality on the stage. A star in his own right, Shakespeare shared the sky with others like Ben Jonson and Francis Beaumont among whom Beaumont happened to be the first dramatist who was honored with a burial in Westminster Abbey while Shakespeare was relegated to the obscurity of Stratford-upon-Avon, his hometown. (Jokinen) There are many reasons for Shakespeare's massive appeal but primarily it appears that Shakespeare's continued popularity has been due to the continued availability of his texts over the centuries and due to their adaptability. The first instance of publishing the collected works of a dramatist written for the stage occurred in the same year of Shakespeare's death. This was done by Ben Jonson himself in a folio volume of nine of his works, called The Workes of Beniamin Jonson. It took however seven years for the publication of a similar collected works in Shakespere's case by Hemminge and Condell in1623 which we now know as the First Folio. (Mabillard). However what is surprising is that while on one hand Shakespeare's folio was reprinted 3 times by the end of the century, Jonson's was reprinted only once. And through the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, there was a major new edition of his Complete Works once every 20 years or so. (Bate, 2007). Although these printings considerably helped the circulation and dissemination of Shakespeare's works among the people England and abroad, the most considerable change in the reputation of Shakespeare came after the Restoration age where due to a large influence on the French airs and aristocratic elegances upon the minds of the upper class English and because of a proliferation of the mass market editions of his work and the increased performances of his plays on the stage led to Shakespeare's plays becoming synonymous with decency and Englishness, even as the institution of the theatre was still poised between respectability and disrepute. (Bates, 2007) Ben Jonson, in the prefatory poem to Shakespeare's first folio refers to the his genius by calling him the “soul of the age” and his ability to reach beyond the temporal as “he was not of an age, but for all time !”. Shakespeare's writing, the locations, the issues and the thematic elements that he dealt with made is work stand the test of time, all the while inspiring and challenging prevalent norms and beliefs. According to Goethe “Shakespeare . . . is not a theatrical poet; he never thought of the stage; it was far too narrow for his great mind; nay, the whole visible world was too narrow.”(Axson, 1932) Shakespeare's writing has the quality of adaptability that continues to carry it forward even in today's time and grants the author the hegemonic status that he has because despite the limitations of the time that he lived in and the limitations of his personal life like not receiving university education he still manages to stay with the audience because he tackles issues that are of importance at a human level. Shakespeare talks of ghosts and revenge and elaborate schemes as part of entertainment on the stage but it is the existential nature of Hamlet's crisis that carries the pay and makes it memorable and contemporary even in the 21st century. Similarly it is the tackling of themes like the corrupting power of unchallenged ambition in Macbeth and the theme of Love against social institutions that reach out to audiences from the courts of the monarch to street vendors alike. What is interesting is that the spatial and temporal location of Shakespeare writing in England at a time when it was going through a change in its social order from the age old feudal to a more economically structured mercantile model. It was also a time when colonisation was becoming the norm and it is because these issues still find place in modern society in some form or another that Shakespeare finds interpretation and continually attracts. Another important element that might perhaps have been consciously used by Shakespeare is of “strategic opacity” (Greenblatt, 2004) where key elements that might resolve situations are left out deliberately to allow for less restraint when actual performance takes place on stage. The missing elements would allow the actors and directors in the play to experiment and personalize the plays according to their situations. This greatly improves adaptability of the plays. The case of Caliban is an example, where The Tempest -while written before a time when England was a colonial power- is seen as a commentary on colonialism. Shakespeare makes interpretations of Caliban's character as an evil schemer; colonized subjects displaced and excluded from his environment or as a victim of his own good nature all seem plausible. Expanding on the issue of adaptability of Shakespeare's works and thus their popularity and in effect his hegemony over the literary canon, I believe that the fact that while writing in the 16th and 17th century one factor that really helped Shakespeare was that he chose to write his plays not in the classical manner, following the unities of time, space and action. However he chose to diversify and jet-packed the plays, taking them to far away countries, spanning long periods of time while at the same time ensuring that they remained balanced with powerful plots and narrative techniques. An experience like this, like a modern cinema film while still rooted in the sensibilities of the time is what I believe must have had quite an effect on the audiences. It was this foresight of transgressing borders that has helped Shakespeare remain adaptable over the centuries. In the Darwinian sense, theory of evolution suggests the survival of the fittest. Similarly, the quality that makes a successful, enduring cultural artifact is its capacity to change in response to new circumstances. The scope of interpretation and their lack of dogma have made Shakespeare's writing achieve this more fully than any other work of the human imagination. Over the centuries Shakespeare has been used to extraordinary political effect. In eastern Europe during the Soviet era, productions of the tragedies - with their tyrannical rulers, spies and paranoia - became a way of criticising party and regime while evading the censor. In Africa, Julius Caesar had particular impact: it offered a paradigm for rebellion against colonial rule. When young black politicians from South Africa, including Nelson Mandela, formed the Youth League of the African National Congress in 1944, to advocate a more militant African nationalism, its first manifesto ended with lines from the play: ''The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars/ But in ourselves, that we are underlings.'' Later, when the ANC leaders were imprisoned on Robben Island, they smuggled in a complete Shakespeare. (Bate, 2012) “In four centuries William Shakespeare has gone from being one of three great Elizabethan playwrights, to being the greatest Elizabethan playwright, to being the greatest poet in English, to being the greatest writer in any language. Like Abraham Lincoln or Thomas Jefferson, whose authority can be invoked on behalf of practically any proposition or cause, King James’ court playwright has been elevated to the status of a benevolent demigod.” (Lind M, 1999) From 1970 to 1993, the 20 pound sterling note had a figure of Shakespeare represented there with the faces of Henry V, Richard III and Elizabeth I, and surmounted by a pile of books upon which the pensive bard leans an insouciant elbow. The bard’s posture alludes to monumental authority; his figure is relaxed and contemplative, comfortable in its mastery. (Holderness, 1985, p. xi). On the note, the figure’s posture and the manuscripts to which he points, secure the dramatist’s work in the literary rather than the canon of theatre. Thus, in concluding, it is apparent that Shakespeare is the most eligible candidate among the select few to his present hegemonic position in the English literary canon because of the immense intrinsically cultural and literary value inherent in his writings and the astonishingly ability of a dramatist writing over 400 years ago to still lay claim to and succeed in holding contemporary relevance both in his subject and portrayal of human emotions. Works Cited Axson, Stockton. "Goethe and Shakespeare." vol. 19. no. 2, pp. 148-168. 1932. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. . Bate, Jonathan. "A Man for All Ages." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 13 Apr. 2007. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. . Bate, Jonathan. "Bard of All Time Finds the Globe Is His Theatre." The Sydney Morning Herald. Fairfax Media, 25 Apr. 2012. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. . Greenblatt, Stephen. "The New York Review of Books." The Death of Hamnet and the Making of Hamlet by Stephen Greenblatt. 21 Oct. 2004. Web. 26 Apr. 2012. . Holderness, Graham. Introduction. The Shakespeare Myth. Manchester UK: Manchester UP, 1988. Print. Jokinen, Anniina. "The Life of Francis Beaumont (1584-1616)." Luminarium: Anthology of English Literature. 10 Sept. 2003. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. . Jonson, Ben. "Ben Jonson: To... William Shakespeare." Luminarium: Anthology of English Literature. Web. 26 Apr. 2012. . Lind, M. 1999, The Dangers of Bardolatry. 24 Apr. 2012 Long, William Joseph. "The Age of Elizabeth." ENGLISH LITERATURE ITS HISTORY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE LIFE OF THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING WORLD. Project Gutenberg, 1 Jan. 2004. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. . Mabillard, Amanda. Shakespeare in Print. Shakespeare Online. 20 Aug. 2004. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. < http://www.shakespeare-online.com/biography/shakespeareinprint.html >. Soanes, C & Stevenson, A 2003, Oxford Dictionary of English Second Edition, William Clowes Ltd., Great Britain Stevens, Charlotte. "The Literary Canon." Literary Encyclopedia. 10 Jan. 2007. Web. 25 Apr. 2012. . Read More