The Progress under New Labour Policy Relating to Childcare and Education - Literature review Example

A Critical Discussion of Skinner’s Statement Name Course Institution Lecturer Date Introduction There is substantial ongoing work regarding the measurement and definition of the wellbeing of children in the United Kingdom. This has incorporated both objective measurements and indicators, and a growing focus on subjective measures of wellbeing. Axford (2009, p.372) tried to explain the various conceptual frameworks, which can be used in relation to wellbeing, including rights, needs, poverty, social exclusion and quality of life. Skinner (2011) maintains that, the wellbeing of children in the UK is generally improving. The rates of child poverty have been gradually reducing since 1999/2000. Other indicators of the improving child wellbeing include increasing educational attainment, declining number of unemployed or untrained youngsters, a drop in infant death rate, and declining child pedestrian serious injuries and deaths. This paper will provide a critical discussion of Skinner’s (2011, p.214) statement that under New Labour policy relating to childcare and education progressed significantly. Child Poverty According to Department of Education (2012), the rate of child poverty in the United Kingdom over doubled in the 1980s, and kept on rising slowly in the 1990s. It only showed signs of declining starting from 1998/99. In 2002/2003, 28 per cent of children in the UK stayed in poverty, based on a relative measure. In 2001, the UK took fifth position in the countries with highest rate of child poverty in the EU. According to UNICEF (2013), at the present, around 2.3 million children in the UK stay in poverty. This rate is among the highest rates of child poverty in the developed world. This rate is high considering that the United Kingdom is a developed country. In this case, childcare and the wellbeing of children in the United Kingdom are still in a critical condition. On the contrary, compared to the past years, the child poverty level has reduced significantly, and showed some positive progress (Department of Education 2012). The increase in poverty is among the major barriers to the enjoyment of rights among children in the UK. This is because; it significantly impacts the children’s health, aspirations, well-being and education. Children living under poverty are unable to afford money to pay for good healthcare services, school fees, and to pursue their dreams. Therefore, they are denied their rights to education and health care. However, children are not in a position to do anything about it on their own, since they depend on their parents, guardians and the government as well. The UK government has a responsibility of ensuring that UK children have easy access to education and health care services (Department of Education 2012). Based on a report by Joseph Rowntree Foundation, child poverty’s cost to the United Kingdom is estimated at £25 billion every year. There is thus a need for the government to take measures that will reduce this level of cost by reducing child poverty. The United Kingdom Government has made commitment to end child poverty across the country by 2020. If no urgent action is taken, the number of UK children staying in poverty will rise as more families strive to deal with the recession (Department of Education 2012). Demography Whiting (2011) assert that, the percentage of children in the United Kingdom’s population has reduced from 25 per cent in 1976 to 20 per cent in 2002. A low population of children indicates that families have a lesser number of children on average. Having a small number of children in a family, especially a number that matches the family income, helps ensure that the needs of the children are effectively catered for. This in turn improves the childcare and welfare of the children. Whiting (2011) argue that, incidences of childlessness amid women in the country have increased significantly in the previous several decades. Compared with 20 percent of women born in 1965, less than ten percent of women born in 1945 stay childless. Seven per cent of UK children stayed in single parent families. This figure increased to 23 per cent in 2003. Single parenting has been associated with poor childcare, especially where mothers are involved. This is because; the mothers are the single bread-winners unlike in families with both parents acting as bread-winners. With such a big percentage of children being brought up by single parents, childcare cannot be considered to have progressed significantly (Whiting 2011). If anything, childcare can be said to have deteriorated given that, in the past there was a very small number of children staying in single parent families. For childcare to have progressed, the number of children under single-parenting could have reduced instead of increasing. Physical health Graya, et al. (2009) observe that, while child and infant mortality rates keep on declining in the United Kingdom, the country has a higher child and infant mortality rate compared to a bigger percentage of other European nations. In 2000, the UK was among countries with the highest percentages of live births with low birth-weight in the OECD. The country is also among the European nations with the largest number of children born to mothers who are infected with HIV. In addition, it takes second position in the number of teenage births out of a total of 28 OECD nations. The declining child and infant mortality rate is an indication of a good progress in relation to the physical health of UK children (Graya, et al. 2009). On the other hand, the mortality rate and health of children and infants in the UK is still high and far from being resolved. High mortality rate, HIV infected children and low-birth weights are indicators of poor physical health of children in the UK. As a result, childcare cannot be deemed to have improved much across the UK, when still a large number of children continue to live under worrying physical health conditions (Graya, et al. 2009). Graya, et al. (2009) further maintain that, big inequalities in child and infant mortality rates are present between ethnic minority groups and Whites in England as well as Wales. Pakistani and Caribbean babies have an over twice likelihood of dying before reaching one year than Bangladeshi or White British babies partly because of a higher incidence of congenital anomalies and preterm birth, respectively in these specific groups. There is a significant heterogeneity between varied ethnic groups in the risk factors and the causes of infant mortality. Explanations relating to differences in infant mortality amid different ethnic groups are multifaceted involving the interaction of deprivation, behavioural, cultural and physiological factors (Graya, et al. 2009). Accordingly, child wellbeing seems to have progressed only among children from privileged ethnic groups, such as the White and Bangladeshi. Children from ethnic minority groups still continue to suffer and experience high mortality rates. Generally, child wellbeing has not made significant progress since large inequalities based on ethnicity still exist. Mental Health Children in the UK continue to experience mental health issues, though the incidence of the issues is declining. Boys have a high likelihood of experiencing some kind of mental health issues compared to girls, mainly conduct disorders. On the other hand, girls have a high probability of experiencing emotional health problems, such as unhappiness (Department of Education 2012). In addition, older children suffer more mental health issues compared to younger children, regardless of condition. Furthermore, prevalence of suicide is high among boys compared to girls and rises with age (Department of Education 2012). Based on the current state of mental health among UK children, child wellbeing can be said to have improved significantly. Lifestyle According to Axford (2009), almost 33 per cent of youngsters aged between 11 and 16 in the UK report taking alcohol in the past one week, and a fifth of youngsters in the UK indulge in smoking on a regular basis. It is approximated that about 16 per cent of British children aged between 2 and 15 years are currently obese. Moreover, more than 60 percent of youngsters aged between 11 and 16 do not take on the appropriate amount of physical activity every day (Axford 2009). The high prevalence of obesity and low physical activity among UK children is an unhealthy lifestyle, as well as a sign of a decline in child wellbeing. Educational Attainment Palmer (2011) observes that, numeracy and literacy level of children at the age of 11 years in England is much higher compared to a decade ago, including those in schools having high deprivation levels.  For instance, in 2010, in maintained ordinary schools with many pupils entitled to free school food, 30 per cent of pupils did not attain level 4 in English Main Stage 2 compared with 43 per cent a decade before.  In Maths, the corresponding figure is 28 per cent compared with 44 per cent a decade before. Though children aged 11 years in schools having large numbers qualified for free meals still perform poorer in Maths and English than those in different schools, their academic performance is currently rationally similar to all-schools average ten years ago. Pupils at the age of 11 years who are qualified for free meals at schools are about two-fold as likely to fail to attain basic standards in numeracy and literacy as 11-year-olds who are entitled to free meals (Palmer 2011). There are clear differences based on gender between Maths and English.  In English, for the free meal category, boys perform poorer compared to girls by about 10 percent.  On the other hand, in Maths, there is a small difference amid girls and boys for a certain free school-meal category.  In short, gender gap only exists in English, and not in Maths (Palmer 2011). Differences in educational attainment amid pupils at the age of 11 years by qualification for free meals at school are greatest among White British pupils. Amid pupils not entitled to free meals, the percentage of White pupils who failed to attain level 4 is lower than that of pupils coming from ethnic minorities, with exception of Indians. In contrast, amid those entitled to free meals, the percentage of White pupils who failed to attain level 4 is higher than that of pupils from all other main ethnic minority groups (Palmer 2011). School exclusions Approximately 6,000 pupils were under permanent exclusion from school in 2009/2010. The number of school exclusions has reduced every year for the last 6 years, from 10,500 in 2003/2004. Eighty percent of such exclusions are for boys. Despite a decline in the number of exclusions in past years, pupils from Black Caribbean origin continue to be four times more likely to receive permanent school exclusion as their White British counterparts (Frankham, et al. 2007).  In contrast, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Indian children have a less likelihood of receiving permanent school exclusion compared to White pupils. Scotland has the lowest incidence of permanent exclusion compared to other states in Great Britain (Frankham, et al. 2007). Children in Low-income Families Drawing from Palmer (2012), using the preferred gauge of low income by the government, which it uses in its formal targets, 3.9 million UK children were staying in households with low incomes in 2008/09 after a deduction of housing expenses. This is 13 per cent lesser than in 1998/1999. From 1998/1999 to 2004/2005 the number of children from low-income families fell, but it has gone up since then.  Consequently, in 2008/09 the number went up to equal that of 2002/03. Palmer (2012) further notes that, compared to the whole UK population, children still have a higher possibility of staying in low-income families, which is 22 per cent and 30 per cent respectively. The interim target of the government was to decrease the population of children from low-income families by 25 per cent by 2004/05. This meant utmost 3.3 million children staying in low-income families by 2004/05.  Now that the real number in 2008/2009 was 3.9 million, still the UK government is 0.6 million beyond its set target for 2004/2005. Palmer (2012) further observes that, using a different gauge of low income, that is, before deducting housing expenses, the level of children living in low-income families fell to 2.8 million from 3.4 million in 2008/09 and 1998/99 respectively.  This constituted an 18 per cent decrease compared with government’s 25 per cent target. In short, based on the measure for before subtracting housing expenses, the government continue to be 0.2 million over its target for 2004/05 and 1.1 million over its target for 2010/11. Fifty percent of all individuals in single-parent families are under low levels of income. This constitutes over twice the percentage of couple having children. Forty per cent of children from low-income families are in single-parent families. The risk of a child of low income differs greatly depending on the amount of paid work that is done by the family.  Nonetheless, unless every adult in a family is working, the risk of living in a low-income family is still considerable. That is, 90 per cent for unemployed households, 75 per cent for other jobless families, and 35 per cent for individuals whereby adults are working part-time (Palmer 2012). Among children staying in low income families, the number staying employed families is bigger than during the mid-1990s, but the number living in workless families is lower.  Consequently, around 57 per cent of children in low-income families now are in families wherein at minimum one adult does paid work.  This forms a very distinct balance from mid-1990s, where the majority was in jobless families. In addition, a bigger percentage of single parents from low-income families do not work. Most of the lone parents in low income are not working (Palmer 2012). On the contrary, most couples in low incomes and having children are under some paid work. The net outcome is that a big proportion of children from low-income families are either living in jobless single-parent families or both-parent families where somebody does paid work. The percentage of children from low-income families is much higher in inner London than all other regions, which is 44 per cent, thirteen points above the average of the entire United Kingdom (Palmer 2012). Children in Workless Families According to Palmer (2011), about 1.9 million children in the UK stay in jobless families. This is one out of every six children. The proportion and number are both similar to those of a decade ago. Fifty per cent of children of single parents stay in families that are jobless. This is in comparison to just one out of fourteen for children with both parents. At over 25 per cent of all UK children, the percentage of children in workless families in central London is higher than all other region across the UK. In addition, the UK has a bigger percentage of children staying in workless families compared to all other European Union nations except Ireland. Furthermore, the UK is among the few EU nations where the percentage of children in workless families is larger than the percentage of working-age individuals staying in jobless households (Department for Work & Pensions 2013). Underage Pregnancies Drawing from Arai (2009), at 7,900, in 2009, the absolute number of pregnancies among girls below 16 years was equal to the number of a decade before, although a lesser proportion currently leads to real births. Actual births resulting from underage pregnancies were lesser in 2009 compared to any other year in the past decade, that is, 3,200 and 4,100 in 2009 and 1999 respectively. In 2009, forty per cent of underage pregnancies led to births, while the other 60 per cent ended up in abortions. Teenage motherhood among girls from manual family backgrounds is eight folds as common as for girls from professional and managerial backgrounds. The underage pregnancy rate is at maximum in North-East England.  Its incidence of 11 in every 1,000 girls between the age of 13 and 15 compares to 6 in every 1,000 girls in East England, which has the lowest incidence (Arai 2009). Housing and Neighbourhoods Though overall conditions of housing in the UK keep on improving, children from low-income families or ethnic minority families have a high likelihood of staying in poor houses compared to other children groups. Neighbourhood discontent is related with an array of factors, such as social class and poverty status. Homelessness, which mainly affects children negatively, has gone up in recent years (Skinner 2011). Substitute Care According to NSPCC (2013), in 2003, around 78,842 children in the UK were under the care of the state, with Scotland taking top position and Northern Ireland taking last position. Over the previous ten years, the number of children under substitute care has gone up by 23 per cent, mainly because children are living under such care for extended periods. There are around 65,000 children under substitute care in England, which is 5,000 that of a decade ago, with the entire increase having taken place in last 3 years, since 2008. Although falling, 25 per cent of looked-after children so far do not attain any qualifications and another 25 per cent obtain less than five GCSEs (NSPCC 2013). These percentages are much higher than for the whole children population in the UK.  For instance, the half that does not attain lesser than five GCSEs, compares to below ten per cent of children overall. However, it ought to be remembered that, a bigger percentage of looked-after children have certain kind of special education needs. A third of formerly looked-after children do not have education, training or employment at the age of 19. Conclusion Child welfare has progressed significantly under the New Labour policy regarding childcare and early education. The rate of child poverty has been reducing since 1998/99. The percentage of children in the United Kingdom’s population has reduced starting 2002. In addition, child and infant mortality rate has reduced, but inequalities exist amid White children and those from ethnic minority groups. Moreover, the incidence of mental health issues among UK children is declining. Numeracy and literacy level of children in England has gone up compared to a decade ago. Furthermore, the number of school exclusions has reduced every year for the last 6 years. The number of children staying in households with low income has also reduced by 13 per cent. On the contrary, youngsters aged between 11 and 16 take alcohol and smoke regularly. A big percentage of UK children are also obese. The number of children in workless families has remained constant over the last decade. The number of children under substitute care has gone up by 23 per cent. Reference List Arai, L 2009, Teenage pregnancy: the making and unmaking of a problem, Bristol, UK, Policy Press. Axford, N 2009, Child well-being through different lenses: why concept matters, Child and Family Social Work, 14 (1), 372-383. Department for Work & Pensions 2013, June 14, Poverty statistics: Fall in number of children in workless poor families, Retrieved December 9, 2013, from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/poverty-statistics-fall-in-number-of-children-in-workless-poor-families Department of Education 2012, Child poverty in the UK: the report on the UK target, London, Stationery Office. Frankham, J, Edwards-Kerr, D, Humphrey, N & Roberts, L 2007, School exclusions, Retrieved December 9, 2013, from http://www.jrf.org.uk/system/files/2072-learning-exclusion-education.pdf Graya, R, Headleyb, J, Oakleya, L & Kurinczuka, JJ 2009, November, Towards an understanding of variations in infant mortality rates between different ethnic groups in England and Wales, Retrieved December 8, 2013, from https://www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/downloads/files/infant-mortality/Infant-Mortality-Briefing-Paper-3.pdf NSPCC 2013, March, Statistics on looked after children, Retrieved December 9, 2013, from http://www.nspcc.org.uk/Inform/resourcesforprofessionals/lookedafterchildren/statistics_wda88009.html Palmer, G 2012, Children in low-income households, Retrieved December 9, 2013, from http://www.poverty.org.uk/16/index.shtml Palmer, G 2011, Children in workless households, Retrieved December 9, 2013, from http://www.poverty.org.uk/18/index.shtml Palmer, G 2011, Educational attainment at age 11, Retrieved December 9, 2013, from http://www.poverty.org.uk/25/index.shtml Skinner, C 2011, Childcare and early years, In J. Bradshaw, The wellbeing of children in the UK, 3rd ed., pp. 213-233, Bristol, Policy Press. UNICEF 2013, UK child poverty, Retrieved December 7, 2013, from http://www.unicef.org.uk/UNICEFs-Work/What-we-do/Issues-we-work-on/End-child-poverty/ Whiting, S 2011, Socio-demographic comparison between those UK families with up to two children and those with three or more, Retrieved December 9, 2013, from http://www.populationmatters.org/documents/family_sizes.pdf Read More