Speaking and Listening and Cognitive Perspectives - Literature review Example

RUNNING HEAD: REVIEW OF TOPICS Language Skills Learning: Speaking and Listening and Cognitive Perspectives: A Review Name: Grade Course: Tutor’s Name: 5th, March, 2010 Introduction Acquisition of language has been divided into two parts. There is first language acquisition and second language acquisition. First language acquisition is acquired naturally and even guides the acquisition of second language because of the basic language processes formed by the first language (Krashen, 2010, Rost, 2005). Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition suggests that, second language acquisition is either acquired by for real language communication or by learning the language. The theory also acknowledges first language acquisition as natural at the early stages of life. Children develop the ability to listen and speak a language from their parents and the people around them. The commands received from such people, form the language input in the mind which are further interpreted, organized, stored, recalled, presented and spoken or used for communication (Krashen, 2010). Below are the differences between first language acquisition and second language acquisition: First language acquisition does not require any conscious knowledge of learning (implicit and subconscious), while in second language acquisition, the learner is aware of the process of learning the second language (explicit and conscious). First language acquisition does not require formal situations, is a stable order of acquisition, only uses the grammatical feel and depends on attitude. Second language acquisition requires formal situations, is simple to intricate order of learning, uses grammatical rules and depends on aptitude (Krashen, 2010). Second language in most cases is acquired by learning and this requires language skills which are; speaking, listening, writing and reading. The four skills are related to each other through direction of communication and mode of communication. Listening and speaking are oral skills while reading and writing are written skills. Listening and reading are receptive while speaking and writing are productive (Mills & Underhill, 1991). The aim of this paper however is to discuss two language learning skills which are; listening and speaking, in relation to the cognitive perspectives in language. Cognitive Perspectives in Language Cognitive science is defined as the science of the mind which also means the study of the mental processes. A mental process manipulates information in various ways. It receives information, organizes it, calculates, recalls, perceives, presents and even communicates after a complete specific process (Kaplan, 2005). It is also indicated in the Cognitive Perspective publication that cognitive perspectives are views that relate to information processing (The Cognitive Perspective). The information relates cognitive perspectives to computer programs which are similar to the human information processes. The programs include; decision making, encoding, perceiving, representing, retrieving and problem solving (The Cognitive Perspective). Several disciplines have been involved in the study of the mind and have related such studies to understanding the respective disciplines. Examples of such disciplines include; linguistics, neuroscience, psychology, computer science and philosophy (Gass & Larry, 2008; Nerbonne, 2009). This is where linguists got the idea of cognitive perspectives in language. The cognitive theory of learning suggests that language acquisition cannot be understood without addressing the interaction between language and cognition. It therefore suggests that language and cognition interact to produce acquisition, and that teachers have to understand the interaction between the two in order to teach the second language learners (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990). Language is acquired through two forms as previously stated. It is acquired naturally through exposure to the environment where the language is spoken and also through systematic studies (learning). Since first language acquisition is not done by any systematic studying, the above statement refers to acquisition of a second language. Interaction between Language and Cognition Cognitive perspectives are linguistic regularities that make it possible for an individual to speak or listen to a second language (Gass & Larry, 2008). Cognitive perspectives are used in both language acquisition and; language learning but there is a difference between language learning and language acquisition as described in the previous paragraphs. Second language acquisition is recognized as a complex cognitive skill (Gass & Larry, 2008; O'Malley & Chamot, 1990) or as a cognitive science as Kaplan refers to it (2005). This means that the skills used in second language acquisition use cognitive processes to acquire the language. Listening is a cognitive process and so is speaking and both listening and speaking are languages’ learning skills (Kaplan, 2005). Speaking and Listening In language acquisition, reading and writing are also important skills. Speaking and listening form part of the important components necessary for development of the reading and writing skills (Hudson, 2007; MELF, 2008) and they also support learning through supporting student thinking, literacy and communication (MELF, 2008). Children need to talk in order to develop their oral language skills. Speaking has its functions and as Brown and Yule indicated, speaking is meant for interaction in order to maintain social relation and transactions which is for exchange of information (Brown & Yule, 1983). Richards (2008) added another function to Brown and Yule’s functions and indicated that speaking functions are divided into: talk as transaction, talk as interaction and talk as performance. Talk as interaction means the normal conversations people have which encourages social interaction. Talk as a transaction is where speaking is done to ensure that the listeners understand what message is being passed through and no consideration is given to participants interactions. The last function is talk as performance which refers to public talk where the main aim is just to transmit information to the public for example, in public announcements and speeches, classroom speeches and so on (Richards, 2008). With knowledge about learning skills it is easy for the teachers to develop teaching strategies (Thornbury, Scott & Slade, 2006), for example, if a teacher is aware of the speaking functions and would like the students to understand his/her message during a class session, the teacher would make use of talk as a transaction. Teaching all depends on the aims of the teacher and what the learners are required to know. In second language learning for example, the aim of the teacher is to ensure the learners know how to speak the language, write it, read it as well as listen to it. The teacher can encourage talk as an interaction as a strategy to help improve the learners’ proficiency in that language. As indicated by Tsang and Wong (2002), acquisition of a second language is also possible by interaction with the people who speak the language. Listening In order to understand how cognition is connected to language, the language skills have to be discussed and the aspects of cognition shown. Listening is a complex cognitive process that allows one to understand spoken language (Cain & Oakhill, 2007; Rost, 2005). It covers receptive, constructive and interpretive aspects of cognition. Listening is considered a language skill as well as a primary way of acquiring second language. It is the process through which language is processed in real time while making use of pausing, pacing and encoding units for a specific spoken language (Rost, 2005). According to Richards, listening can be considered as a comprehension and as acquisition. In both perspectives, there is cognition (2008). Listening as a comprehension is a view that considers listening as a way to understand spoken conversation. In order to understand listening as a comprehension, characteristics of spoken discourse have to be understood. Spoken discourse is always instantaneous requiring the listener to process it online with no time to listen to it again. In some instances, the second language learner finds spoken discourse very first although the speech rates differ. Spoken discourse also has linear structure unlike written discourse which has hierarchical structure. There are so many other characteristics of spoken language that influences the nature of the process of listening (Richards, 2008). Understanding spoken discourse is through two listening processes which are; the top-bottom and the bottom-up processes. Listening as a comprehension therefore has a process that ensures the spoken discourse is recognized, organized, interpreted and responded to. Richards refers to top-bottom process as those that utilise incoming input as the basis for understanding the message (2008). Rost also indicated that listening in second language is a goal oriented activity that involves the listener attending to data in the incoming speech signals, the bottom up- process and the top-down process, which is described as the process that makes use of prior knowledge and expectations to help in understanding language (Rost, 2005). Listening as acquisition This view considers listening as a way of providing input to second language acquisition proficiency. It is therefore based on the following assumptions; that learners have to be taught how to use bottom up and top-down processes of listening, that teaching learners listening strategies can improve their proficiency in listening, that the utterances by speakers, that is the syntax, precise words and expressions, are temporary meaning carriers and that; the purpose of listening is to extract meanings from messages (Richards, 2008). With such recognition, teachers are able to develop strategies for teaching second language acquisition. Rost however has a different perspective. The author acknowledges that listening in second language involves bottom-up and top-bottom process but lists the following as the processes of listening in second language acquisition: Decoding, comprehension, interpretation and listener response (2005). Decoding entails speech perception, word recognition and grammatical parsing. Comprehension means the “activation of preceding knowledge, representing propositions in short term memory, and logical inference” (Rost, 2005 p. 504). Interpretation is the process of comparing meanings using prior expectations, activating individual participating frames and evaluating the discourse meaning (Rost, 2005). Knowledge about listening skills and the processes involved is very important in teaching. As previously noted, such kind of knowledge gives the teachers the necessary information to include in their strategies for teaching second languages (Wolvin & Coakely, 1996). The teacher in this case is aware that listening is a cognitive process with top-bottom and bottom-up processes and would look for strategies to engage the cognitive skills of the learners necessary for language acquisition. Conclusion As the cognitive theory suggests, cognitive aspects in listening and speaking are important skills necessary for language acquisition. In the above discussion, listening cognitive skills and their importance have been briefly discussed. It is clear that linguists’ research and work on cognitive perspectives on language has contributed a lot in second language learning. So many people agree with the linguists that cognition has to connect to language skills for a specific language to be acquired. This relationship has proven important to teachers of second language acquisition. As indicated in the discussion and teachers make use of the knowledge about the cognitive perspectives in language to form plans on how they will teach and make students acquire the second language. The listening skills for example, show that an individual decodes the language, comprehends it, interprets it and responds to it. The language has also to be spoken for proficiency as learning continues. Reference List Brown, G. and Yule, Y. (1983). Teaching the Spoken Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cain, K. and Oakhill, J. (2007). Children's Comprehension Problems in Oral and Written Language: a Cognitive Perspective. New York, US: Guilford Press. Gass, S. and Larry, S. (2008). Second Language Acquisition: an Introductory Course. New York, US: Routledge Taylor & Francis Publishing. Hudson, C. (2007). Improving Listening and Speaking Skills. Department foe Education and Skills. Retrieved on 29th, March 2010 from: http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/S&LPACK02.pdf. Kaplan, R. B. (2005). The Oxford Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Oxford University Press US. Krashen, S. (2010). Krashen's Comprehension Hypothesis Model of L2 learning. Retrieved on 3rd, April, 2010 from: http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/Krashen.htm. Mills, M. and Underhill, M. (1991). Language Skills. Ireland: Folens. Minneapolis Elementary Literacy Framework (MELF). (2008). Key Components of Speaking and Listening Instruction. Retrieved on 3rd, April, 2010 from: http://elementaryliteracy.mpls.k12.mn.us/uploads/Key_Components_of_Speaking_and_Listening_Instruction_2.pdf. Nerbonne, J. (2009). Cognitive and Cultural Perspectives on Language. Alfa-informatica, University of Groningen. Retrieved on 31st, March, 2010 from; http://urd.let.rug.nl/nerbonne/papers/rel-cog-2006.pdf. O'Malley, J.M and Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. New York, US: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C. (2008). Teaching Listening and Speaking: From Theory to Practice Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. http://www.cambridge.org/us/esl/ic3/images/pdf/Teaching_Listening_and_Speaking_new.pdf Rost, M. (2005). L2 Listening. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning (503-528). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. The Cognitive Perspective. Retrieved on 31st, March 2009, from: http://dakota.fmpdata.net/PsychAI/PrintFiles/Cognitive.pdf. Thornbury, Scott, and Slade, D. (2006). Conversation: From Description to Pedagogy. New York: Cambridge University Press Tsang, W. K., and Wong, M. (2002). Conversational English: An Interactive, Collaborative and Reflective Approach. In Jack C. Richards and Willy Renandya (eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 212–224. Wolvin, A., and Coakely, C. G. (1996). Listening, (5th ed.). 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