General Characteristics of Learning Disabilities - Coursework Example

Learning Disabilities Name Institution Introduction Learning disabilities (LDs) affect the capacity of the brain to acquire, store, process and respond to and communicate information. National Centre for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) defines learning disabilities a single or a set of disorders in basic psychological processes in respect to understanding or applying spoken or written language. The consequential effect, according to NCLD (2014), is the difficulty in concentrating, listening, spelling, speaking, writing, mathematical reasoning and mathematical calculation. Still, there has been divergence on how learning disability should be defined. While some theorists have considered learning disabilities to be set of complex and diverse learning disabilities, other have considered them to be a homogenous group that call for similar intervention and assessments (Rosetti and Henderson, 2013; Hallahan et al, 2005). This article however takes the perspective that LD is the presence or incidence of significant variation in a person’s abilities compared to his performance in one or several other areas leading to varied difficulties. Learning disabilities are caused by a range of factors, or intrinsically divergent processes of information acquisition due to the central nervous system. Learning Disabilities and General Characteristics As established by Hallahan et al (2005), children with learning disabilities tend to experience difficulties in processing information. Such difficulties comprise the reception of information using the senses, information storage, information retrieval, and expression of retrieved information in oral or written form. Rosetti and Henderson (2013) also confirmed that many of individuals with LD might have attention deficit, or capacity to focus attention. On the other hand, the specific characteristics of individuals with learning disabilities may however be unique in the sense that when two children experience difficulties with language, the level of difficulty may differ while effective teaching strategies may as well differ considerably. To this end, Geary (2004) points out that children with learning disabilities may possess severe deficits in processing information in a range of areas, such as visual perception, fine monitor skills, visual perception, gross motor skills, visual-motor integration, receptive language, fine motor skills, attention, expressive language, organisation and processed speed. In a separate study, Hallahan et al (2005) identified the different symptoms relating to learning disabilities as difficulty with colour, concepts and size, poor organisational skills and general feeling of awkwardness, disorganised thinking and problematic abstract reasoning, lag in achieving developmental milestones, difficulties in performing tasks related to reversals or sequencing in reading and writing, and poor visual motor integration. The areas affected by learning disability include speaking, listening, remembering, reasoning, spelling, written language, problem solving, reading, social interactions and spatial relations ( Jordan & Hanich, 2003). Reading as a learning disability and possible interventions Of the learning disabilities, NCLD (2014) warns that dyslexia is among the most critical, as it can be a lifelong challenged. This form of language-based processing difficulty, which may hinder writing, reading, spelling and in some instances reading. According to NCLD (2014), dyslexia consists of specific difficulties in reading characterised by disabilities in word recognition, spelling and decoding. In attempting to outline the interventions for reading disabilities, Mammarella et al, (2010) uses behaviourist and cognitive perspectives to suggest that learning usually occur within a stimulus, response and consequence paradigm.” The stimulus may be when a teacher demonstrates making of letter-sound correspondences in the process of helping a child to read a word. Consequence may include provision of verbal praise in application of strategies and reading words effectively or even giving the right feedback. Hence, intervention can be considered in terms of stimuli or consequence. Therefore, it could be reasoned that examination of stimulus, response, and consequence in the context of reading skills can help achieve appropriate interventions. In response to reading as a learning disability, Joseph (2008) suggests the Three-tiered Response-to-Intervention (RTI) model as effective for suggesting appropriate strategies and interventions for reading disabilities. Tier 1 involves providing the leasers with evidence-based reading instruction anchored in the school's main reading curriculum designed for meeting the needs for all learners in a class. This may include Peer Assisted Leaning Strategies (PALS) program, which is an interventional strategy for spreading class-wide peer tutoring through integration of assisted reading strategies. In Tier 2, the progress of the learners is monitored through testing of the effectiveness. In Tier 3, specifically designed interventions are suggested based on results from Tier 2 (Joseph, 2008). Figure 1: RTI model (Joseph, 2008) Based on the RTI model, three general interventions can be suggested. These include modelling/demonstration, shaping and reinforcing responses and correcting errors. Modelling/Demonstration The modelling/demonstration intervention is based on social cognitive theory, which examines the processes associated with how individuals learn through observation of others to acquire control of their behaviours. In consistency with the social cognitive theory, modelling/demonstration is essentially learning through expectations of consequences. In describing the intervention method, Joseph (2008) states that children are taught to observe varied behaviours done by adults or peers so as to imitate them. In which case, the parents may be asked to read along with the children with reading disabilities so that the children can imitate their reading habits. Indeed, a study by Torgeson (2002) established that children tended to improve their oral reading when they observed other people read passages proficiently. Still, Joseph (2008) expresses that while modelling proficient reading using this intervention is crucial, there is no guarantee that the reading behaviour will be imitated. As a result, the teachers have to demonstrate reading proficiently to make the children with the learning disability to perform the behaviour. Demonstration in this way is likely to trigger effective response from the individuals with reading disability. In which case, it is consistent with the Tier 1 of the RTI model. Reinforcement/Shaping This intervention is based on Constructivist Theory, which posits that learners tend to construct knowledge they perceive as making sense to them. In which case, new learning is contingent on current understanding. Just as the Reinforcement/Shaping intervention, the Constructivist Theory is focused on internal thinking processes and, in consistency with Cognitive Theory, views learning as change in cognitive functions. The two are also focused on strengthening the desired behaviour. In the case of children with reading disabilities, this intervention can be effective. When the learners with LD begin to learn and read or attempt to do so, Joseph (2008) suggests that they need to be provided with reinforcers to emit the right responses, as this will shape their reading behaviours. For instance, the learners may make several letter-sound correspondences of words, such as /sl/, for the word slow. They should therefore be instructed in what aspect of the response is right to enable them to gain on this and to make them focus their attention on the aspects they are sure of and can master. The intervention is consistent with the Tier 2 of the RTI model. Repeated practice/Practicing opportunities Based on Behaviourist Theory, Joseph (2008) suggests an effective intervention for reading disabilities as involving establishing the right environment, where the learners with reading disability can frequently practice reading. Behaviourist Theory is concerned with environment and behaviour. The theory posits that individuals learn through consequences. In which case, the teachers should structure the learning setting and reading lessons so that students respond and repeat practice. Torgeson (2002) takes this perspective to argue that teachers attending to children with learning disabilities need to provide them with plenty of reading opportunities and to participate in repeated practice. In his study, the right reading environment combined with repeated practice and plenty if opportunities to respond lead the learners to acquire, retain, and generalise skills. The intervention is consistent with the Tier 3 of the RTI model. Conclusion Learning disabilities are not considered intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, and sensory impairments. Of the learning disabilities, dyslexia is among the most critical as it can be a lifelong challenged. It forms of language-based processing difficulty, which may hinder writing, reading, spelling and in some instances reading. It therefore causes specific difficulties in reading characterised by disabilities in word recognition, spelling and decoding. Based on the RTI model, three general interventions can be suggested. These include modelling/demonstration, shaping and reinforcing responses and correcting errors. In modelling/demonstration intervention children are taught to observe varied behaviours done by adults or peers so as to imitate them. In Reinforcement/Shaping, the learners are provided with reinforcers to emit the right responses, as this will shape their reading behaviours. In Repeated practice/Practicing opportunities, educators structure the learning setting and reading lessons so that students respond and repeat practice. References Geary, D. (2004). Mathematics and Learning Disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities 37(1), 4-15 Hallahan, D., Lloyd, J., Kauffman, M., Weiss, M. & Martinez, E. (2005). Learning Disabilities: Foundations, Characteristics, and Effective Teaching, 3/E. Boston: Pearson Jordan, N. & Hanich, L. (2003). Characteristics of Children with Moderate Mathematics Deficiencies: A Longitudinal Perspective. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 18(4), 213-221 Joseph, L. (2008). Best Practices on Interventions for Students with Reading Problems. Best Practices in School Psychology 4(1), 1163-1180 Mammarella, I., Lucangelu, D. & Cornoldi, C. (2010). Spatial Working Memory and Arithmetic Deficits in Children With Nonverbal Learning Difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities 43(5), 455-468 National Center for Learning Disabilities, NCLD (2014). Dyslexia. Retrieved from NCLD website: Rosetti, C. & Henderson, S. (2013). Lived Experiences of Adolescents with Learning Disabilities. The Qualitative Report 18(47), 1-17 Torgeson, J. (2002). The Prevention of Reading Difficulties. Journal of School Psychology 40(1), 7-26 Read More