Students' PE Experience and Their Evaluation of PE Teaching Efforts - Research Paper Example

Methodology Introduction Research is the most important part of any assignment and although this can be quite intimidating, a scientific approach can help the researcher to conduct an efficient and conclusive study. The research technique should be able to fulfill the required objectives of the assignment and arrive at a proper conclusion. The researcher must collect data from empirical studies i.e. directly from the field, and analyze the data to draw conclusion. A researcher must plan his approach according to the nature of the topic. The data collected must conform to the research question and serve the purpose of the research. Philosophical assumptions All researchers base their work on philosophical assumptions. A researcher works within a parameter of socially influenced outlook, and there so the initial assumptions are always taken for granted. Generally speaking, philosophical assumption is deduction made by the researchers based on his previous knowledge and perspective of the concerned subject. There are three kinds of philosophical assumptions that form the root of a research methodology. The structure of a research is consisted of ontology, epistemology, methodology, and methods. Ontology can be defined as the study of a subject’s reality and deals with the question of “what is”. The researcher needs to define his perspective concerning the subject based on its real form and implications. Epistemology is concerned with knowledge that is collected from field research. Epistemological assumptions are born from study of data that are collected and assimilated by the researcher. It is an establishment of relation between the “would-be-knower and what can be known”. The structure of a research is confined within ontological and epistemological assumptions. All the assumptions that are made by the researcher are based on guesswork, and so the philosophical aspects of the research can never proven as completely true or false. The ontological and epistemological assumptions differ with each research since each subject has its own definition of reality and therefore the research approach is also different. Methodology is the defined course of action which is reliant on the selected methods of research. Therefore, methodology is the process and reasons of data collection and deduction. Methodology is the manner in which the researcher confirms or refutes his preconceived beliefs about the subject. Method is the entire procedure of collecting and analyzing data which can be both quantitative and qualitative like conducting interview or studying responses by distributing questionnaires. Any kind of research is not possible without committing to ontological and epistemological assumptions. Since such assumptions differ between different researchers therefore the approach towards the same kind of research is not same for different researchers. Positivist methodology attempts to take an objective view by establishing relationships. Positivists do not hold any preconceived notions and observe the subject with objectivity and attempts to derive the intrinsic meaning. Thus, the researcher and the researched are two separate entities. Positivists do not assume any meaning as the meaning exists within the objects, and the researcher attempts to obtain this meaning. Post-positivists work with experiments and correlational studies. They depend more on the perspectives of the participants than on the collected data. Since the knowledge is speculative therefore the hypotheses, if not proved, are not absolutely rejected (Scotland, 2012, pp.9-10). Constructivism is knowledge derived from experience and observations. It is only through getting acquainted with and participating with the objects in this world, researchers can derive knowledge (Heron & Reason, 1997, p.277). Research methods Qualitative approach There are a number of research methods that can be selected and applied according to the nature and scope of the topic. Qualitative research includes forming opinion about the matter as a whole, and the data generated may not be mathematically analyzed. According to John Creswell, there are certain characteristics of qualitative research. First, it is necessary to understand whether the participants have the need of the subject matter of research, and whether they are aware of the rules of qualitative research. Second, if the participants are in any kind of doubt then it is the responsibility of the researcher to make them understand the characteristics of qualitative research, and if possible it is also important to explain to the participants about the necessity and consequences of the research by discussing with them about recent journal articles. Third, the participants need to be informed about some basic characteristics of qualitative research. Qualitative research study is based on field observation and so the participants are not invited to a lab but rather they are observed in the natural setting. Often face-to-face interactions are part of this research methodology. In qualitative research, the researcher performs the study himself by taking interviews or studying documents. They do not rely upon information gathered by other researchers. The researcher collects data from multiple sources like interviews, observations and audiovisual information. Then the researcher categorizes the data in groups to make sense of them. The researcher performs inductive and deductive analysis. The former indicates putting the data into different themes while the latter indicates studying all data based on their theme to find out whether more information is needed. Thus, a research begins with inductive analysis and then as it progresses there is deductive thinking. Another important thing about qualitative research is that the researcher has to understand the perspectives of the participants regarding the issue, and not what the researchers believes about the issue. Also, in qualitative research since the researchers relies on field observation therefore the research process has to be flexible. Once the researcher enters the field, he may have to change the pattern of questions. The basic approach is to understand the views of the participants regarding the issue and based on this the research should be addressed. In qualitative research, the researcher often reflects on the impact of his own cultural and economic background on his interpretation. Finally, in qualitative research the researcher tries to hold a holistic account of the issue. The researcher observes all data from different sources and assesses all the factors involved in the issue to obtain a bigger picture of the concerned issue (Creswell, 2013, pp.185-186). In quantitative research, data is collected and analyzed, but they follow a disciplined process of research. John Creswell has suggested that qualitative researchers should choose from five possibilities which are narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study, and grounded theory. Narrative research means the researcher will ask the participants about their life and experiences, and will then combine them with his own life and experiences. In phenomenological research, the researcher will study the experiences of participants in the context of the concerned issue. In this process, the researcher “brackets his or her own experiences in order to understand those of the participants in the study” (Creswell, 2003, p.15). In ethnographical research, the researcher studies the behavioral pattern of a cultural group of people in their natural setting. This process of research is flexible and is shaped according to the real experiences of the participants based on the field setting. In case studies the researcher, within a specific period of time, studies an individual or a group of individuals, events or activities. A case study is defined by the researcher’s activities involved and time constraint since data is collected by certain procedures over a specific length of time. Grounded theory indicates that the researcher will derive information about a process or action based on the perspectives of the participants. In this process, the data is collected through multiple stages and the researcher compares the relationship between the information of different categories. One primary characteristic of grounded theory is that data is constantly compared between existing and emerging categories, and the second characteristic is placing information in different groups so as to compare their similarities and differences (Creswell, 2003, pp.14-15). There are certain strengths and weaknesses in qualitative research. First let me talk about the strengths. Since in qualitative research data is collected by the researcher from first hand sources (interviews, field observation etc.), the data collected are authentic, specific and up-to-date. Therefore, the data is more persuasive and convincing than quantitative research. Also, the questions can be framed specifically for the research topic. However, drawback of primary research is the involvement of high cost and time. Moreover, qualitative research can be affected if the researcher is not adequately skilled, and also researcher can get carried away by his own views and prejudices. Since the researcher has to be present among the participants the latter may not always feel free to provide accurate responses. Quantitative approach Quantitative research takes a scientific approach wherein a hypothesis is created to prove or disprove it by mathematical analysis of data generated. Quantitative research focuses more on natural phenomena as opposed to qualitative research which studies the social and cultural phenomena. The selection of quantitative research or qualitative research is dependent on the nature of the research study. In quantitative research data is collected by interviews or questionnaires and the data is placed in a tabular form to make a mathematical interpretation. Quantitative researchers measure the variables on a selected group of subjects, and then establish relation between the variables using “effect statistics such as correlations, relative frequencies, or difference between means; their focus is to a large extent on the testing of theory” (Thomas, 2010, p.303). In quantitative research, the procedure of data analysis is decided beforehand and a hypothesis is formulated which is proved or disproved. The researcher plays the role of objective observer and field study is not involved, and therefore the researcher does not influence the responses of the participants (Thomas, 2010, p.304). Quantitative researchers perform true experiments and also less formal experiments called quasi-experiments and correlation studies. Today, quantitative researchers use more complex experiments including multiple variables and treatments. They also include “elaborate structural equation models that incorporated casual paths and the identification of the collective strength of multiple variables” (Creswell, 2003, p.13). In true experiments subjects are randomly grouped into specific conditions while in quasi-experiments the designs are nonrandomized. Quasi-experiments include single-subject designs. Qualitative researchers also perform surveys to cross-sectional and longitudinal studies with data that is collected by distributing questionnaires or by conducting structural interviews. Such surveys can be conducted on random samples or on an entire population (Creswell, 2003, p.14). Quantitative research has certain strengths and weaknesses. First let me talk about the strengths. First, since there are already established hypotheses quantitative researchers simply try to prove or disprove them. Second, research findings can be generalized since data are based on random samples or different populations. Quantitative researchers provide mathematical data and so they are precise. Quantitative research is less time consuming than quantitative research since the former can be quickly analyzed by using statistical software. One major weakness of quantitative research is that researchers may fail to consider the current phenomena since they will try to prove or disprove pre-established hypotheses instead of generated hypotheses. Since data are collected from large samples and populations, therefore the data may not reflect the local situation and individuals. Mixed methods In mixed methods, researchers use both qualitative and quantitative methods of research. In the mixed method approach there are both philosophical assumptions and methods of inquiry. Since there are philosophical assumptions, i.e. hypotheses, therefore researchers can design appropriate strategies for gathering, assimilation and assessment of data. Based on the assumptions, researchers can also design in what manner they can mix the quantitative and qualitative methods of research. The main implication of mixed research is that researchers believe that by combining qualitative and quantitative methods of research the final interpretation of data will be more precise than any qualitative or quantitative approach (Creswell, 2006, p.5). Quantitative data are derived from close-ended information based on attitude, behavior and performance instruments. The data can be found in documents or census records, and they are statistically analyzed to respond to research questions or verify hypotheses. On the contrary, qualitative data are derived from open-ended information based on interviews and questionnaires or from field survey by observing participants in their natural settings. It is the characteristic of being open-ended or close-ended more that the types of sources that distinguishes between qualitative and quantitative research. By mixing the two kinds of data, the researcher can provide a better result than if he had used a single method of research. In mixed research the task is not only to assemble and assess both quantitative and qualitative data, but to mix them in a way so that a larger and more accurate picture of the issue can be obtained. However, mixed research has its own sets of strengths and weaknesses. First, mixed method of research can compensate the weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative research. In qualitative research due to personal participation of the researcher the participants often do not feel free to give correct answers, and also since the study is conducted on limited number of participants generalized data of larger groups cannot be obtained. In quantitative research, direct communication is often not held with participants and so researcher often gets biased with personal interpretations. So it can be said, that by combining both qualitative and quantitative research the weaknesses of each method can be offset. Moreover, mixed researchers can have a broader view of the issue since they can collect data from any sources and in any method without being constrained with any specific type of data tool as is assigned to qualitative or quantitative research. Mixed research is also more practical than either of the other two research methods because researcher can derive conclusions from both inductive and deductive thinking and by using both numbers and words (Creswell, 2006, pp.6-10). Triangulation Triangulation means mixing data from different sources to prove the validity of emerging findings (Thomas, 2010, p.322). This method is used to overcome the limitations of any single method approach. Triangulation is used to prove the authenticity of processes, and in case studies triangulation can be approached by using different sources of data. This approach indicates the use of not only multiple sources of data but also the use of multiple informants and multiple methods. Triangulation helps the researcher to obtain multiple perspectives of the concerned issue and can have a more comprehensive view of the issue. This approach helps to compare data obtained from different sources to prove the validity of research findings, and it is an important way to authenticate qualitative research findings (Thomas, 2010, p.323). Tools for data collection Interviews Interview is the method of garnering information from participants by asking them oral questions which are often previously set. Interview is one of the most effective methods used by a researcher since the questions can be designed in the manner so that they conform to the research topic, and so the questions are focused. The main advantages of interview are that researcher can communicate directly with the participants and valuable information can be obtained from limited number of people. There are various kinds of interviews. Structured or close-ended questions set the answer options and can be multiple choice, dichotomy (two response alternatives) or scale. In a multiple choice question, respondents can select one or more of the alternative answers given. In close ended questions, respondents are given alternatives like yes or no to choose from. These questions do not elicit further opinions of the respondents. Close ended questions are more popular among researchers and respondents because the set of answers are defined in advance, and the respondent simply has to select the correct option. Unstructured or open-ended questions are ones where the respondents can give their opinion or thoughts in their own words. Open ended questions are questions to which respondents can reply in their own words. The answers are not pre-defined, and the respondent can freely express his views and ideas. Semi-structured interview consists of both open-ended and close-ended questions. Focus-group interview is less structured than the other three types of interviews. It is conducted after a individual interviews are completed so as to compare the different responses received from the interviewees (Thomas, 2010, pp.314-315). Focus group In focus group interview, researcher asks questions to a group of people thus making it distinct from one-on-one methods of interview. One advantage of this is that valuable information can be obtained by interaction between group members. In one-on-one interviews, certain sensitive topics may not receive proper response but in a group people may feel free to express ideas through interaction with other members. Focus group interview is often conducted after a series of individual interviews. Observation Observation is when the researchers observe the behavior of people in their natural settings. Observation can be covert or overt. In covert observation the researcher observes the participants from a distance without revealing his intention. It has several advantages like participants will not feel conscious and will behave in their natural manner, and this will help the researcher to get the idea of real phenomena. However, there are ethical considerations attached to covert observation. In case of overt observation, the researcher reveals his identity and purpose to the participants. The disadvantage is that participants become conscious of being observed and therefore do not behave in natural manner (Gill & Johnson, 2010, p.165). Survey By conducting a survey, researcher can obtain quantitative information about the participants’ behavior, perspectives and attitudes. Information is obtained by asking the participants both structured and unstructured questions based on cross-sectional and longitudinal studies (Creswell, 2013, p.13). Findings of the study The researcher has conducted a study of 50 male students in Kuwait by using mixed method of research. Questions were asked to the students about their PE experience and their evaluation of PE teaching efforts. Semi-structure interview was applied since the questions were both open-ended and close-ended. They were also observed by 2 teachers to study their behavior and approach as they are asked to play the roles of coach, equipment manager, and scorekeeper. The researcher has used focus group methodology to understand the opinion of male students between 10 to 14 years regarding their PE experience with Sport Education and Athletics Challenges. The students were surveyed through 18 lessons with each being of 45 minutes duration to study their behavior and attitudes as all the students are allowed to participate in decision making. Conclusion From this paper it can be concluded that there are various kinds of research techniques each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, it is the job of the researchers to choose the research technique that is compatible with their research topic. References Creswell, J. (2003) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 2nd ed., SAGE Publications Creswell, J. (2013) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, 4th ed., SAGE Publications Creswell, J. (2006) Understanding Mixed Methods Research, pp.1-19 Gill, J. & Johnson, P. (2010) Research Methods for Managers, SAGE Publications Heron, J. & Reason, P. (1997) A Participatory Inquiry Paradigm. Qualitative Inquiry,3(3), 274-94 Scotland, J. (2012) Exploring the Philosophical Underpinnings of Research: Relating Ontology and Epistemology to the Methodology and Methods of the Scientific, Interpretive, and Critical Research Paradigms. English Language Teaching, 5(9), 9-16 Thomas, P.Y. (2010) Research Methodology and Design, pp.291-334 Read More