Developmental Differences between Bilinguals and Monolinguals - Term Paper Example

Essay on literacy issues- Bilingualism and literacy The Pre-Essay Individual Reflection Bilinguals have always intriguedme especially with their ability to have a huge mastery of words in different languages. I have always held the opinion that these learners are the best in literacy classes as they already have what it takes to analyze the concepts of different languages. Since they understand these concepts, they can easily apply the same concepts in the second language learning classroom. I also view the bilingual learners as having a huge store of vocabulary of different languages. This places them at a better place than the monolinguals that are simply confined to their first language. However, what I always wondered was whether these bilinguals ever get confused with the rules of the different languages learnt such as phonetics, phonology and syntax. Is it possible that the bilinguals have one of the languages erased after studying another language? How do they switch from one language to another? If they switch do they mix up the rules of these languages? In spite of having all these doubts, what I always believed is that the bilinguals have higher cognitive abilities than the monolinguals; thus, can process other languages very easily. I also envied the bilinguals for their ability to own different languages. Through this, they always acted brave and confident while speaking the languages as well as in writing. I am, therefore, yet to change my perception that the bilinguals have a more advantage in terms of literacy skills over the monolinguals who I believe take time to adjust in the second language classroom. Essay on literacy issues- Bilingualism and literacy 1.0 Introduction There are numerous developmental differences between bilinguals and monolinguals. In relation to literacy skills, the aspect of bilingualism and monolinguals play a huge role in determining if literacy will be achieved will minimal difficulties or not. Various researchers and analysts have argued that proficiency in a language requires that the learners are experts in two or more languages. However other researchers refute this supposition as there are many proficient language users that are monolingual and many bilinguals who can barely comprehend concepts in language. With this is mind, it is of essence to investigate both sides of the effect of bilingualism and whether this concept places learners at a better stance to learn a second language. The essay will then derive a conclusion on whether bilinguals have an added advantage over their monolingual learners as far as literacy skills is concerned. 2.0. Bilinguals have an advantage over monolinguals in terms of literacy 2.1. Development of words and bilingualism The development and comprehension of words has greatly been linked to bilingualism. As seen in the research conducted by Bialystok (1997), children or learners that have mastered the concept of words can be indicated to have acquired linguistic prowess as they have mastered several words. In relation to bilingual children, the author continues to indicate that these children have a huge likelihood of comprehending the verity that words are mere formal abstractions of language as it is through words that they can label things in their surrounding (Bialystok, 1997; Bialystok, 2007). In line with this argument, it is validated to indicate that the bilingual learners are well placed as far as literacy is concerned. Additionally, Bialystok (2007) indicates that bilinguals have better word development; thus, are able to discern the subjective nature of the words and their referred meanings. Since the bilingual learners displayed numerous advantages in relation to word awareness as opposed to monolingual children, it is vindicated to point out that bilingualism have an extra advantage in terms of literacy skills. On a deeper insight, Bialystok (1997) indicates that the bilingual children have an advanced capability of mastery of the concepts of word. This explains why the bilinguals are able to differentiate words in sentences, and even pick out the words that carry more weight in the sentence. In terms of word comprehension as well, the bilinguals were indicated to have capability of coming up with synonyms of words in sentences. This is to mean that the bilingual learners have the ability to selectively chose words and apply the same in different contexts. It is this process of applying specific processes to a different language that explains if an individual has developed an advanced ability or applied specialized meanings to the use of language; hence, better acquisition of literacy skills among the bilinguals in contrast to the monolinguals (Bialystok, 2007). 2.2. Cognitive development and bilinguals Yet another added advantage of bilinguals over the monolingual in relation to literacy skills is the advanced cognitive development. As seen in the research conducted by Bialystok (2007), bilinguals have extra advantages in the context of cognitive aspect of second language learning. In terms of meta-linguistic knowledge, the bilinguals have indicated deeper diagnostic orientation as the bilinguals have more experience in organizing language systems from two languages; thus, can separate the rules of the two languages whilst studying the second language. This is dissimilar to the monolinguals that have knowledge on the systems of language of only one language. The monolinguals will, therefore, have lots of difficulties when doing tasks that force them to control the linguistic processes of the second language (Bialystok, 1997). On another standpoint, it is vital to draw attention to the verity that bilinguals have been indicated to have high levels of critical thinking as well as diversity of the second language learning is concerned (Bialystok, 1997; Bialystok, 2007). The bilinguals are also extremely creative and continually display critical thinking in the course of learning a second language. This is for the reason that the bilinguals as opposed to the monolinguals have more experience in studying a second language and will be completely immersed in second language classroom. Since the monolinguals have minimal experiences, partial immersion in the second language will be their situation as they do not have much experience of dealing with different languages (Bialystok, 1997; Bialystok, 2007). It is, therefore, warranted to state that the bilinguals are more advantages as they have divergent ability to evaluate situations; thus, higher levels of meta-linguistic awareness than the monolinguals. It is also worth to note that the bilingual children have unique cognitive abilities since a majority of them constantly examine their two languages and always endeavor to separate the two. Without a doubt, this signifies non-interference on the part of the bilinguals and clear understanding of the two language systems. In the event that the bilingual learners are expected to give certain information on the second language, the bilinguals are less likely to be distracted despite the extent in which the presented information is twisted (Bialystok, 1997; Bialystok, 2007). Aspects such as improper word substitution and incorrect sentences are not likely to be experienced for the bilinguals. The methodical orientation to language structures and comprehension on the underlying dimensions of language patterns differ greatly with the bilinguals having advanced levels of both. On another view point, Cummins (1976) validates the verity that the bilinguals have an added advantage over the monolinguals through the argument that persons that have minimal skills in other languages are more likely to have cognitive discrepancies unlike bilinguals. Cummins (1976) defines a threshold model that explains that dual languages have been linked with higher proficiency levels as far as cognition is concerned. The bilinguals will then perform better in meta-linguistic tasks and will continually show high levels of control and representation of the second language. Transferability from the first to the second language is also evident for the bilinguals. Divergent thinking as Cummins (1976) accepts to Bialystok’s (1997) thought, meta-linguistic capability is a characteristic of the bilinguals. In this context, it is worth to conclude that the cognitive abilities of the bilinguals can be utilized in the context of a second language; thus, better acquisition and proficiency in the second language. Instruction in the first language will indeed favor instruction in the second language. From study conducted by Cummins (1976), it is also compelling to conclude that despite there being contests that the second language is likely to erase the first language, the supposition is fallacious. Of essence, pairing two languages has proven useful in improving the proficiency in the third language (Cummins, 1976). Having a second language is, therefore, an added advantage and the monolinguals stand at a greater loss. 2.3. Bilinguals and intercultural language learning In relation to language learning, bilinguals have been indicated to not only grasp the concepts of another language, but also differentiate objects and ideas of the second language. Baker (2006) indicates that through other languages, bilinguals gain more approaches in numerous ways of thinking and approaching the world. This is to mean that as opposed to the monolinguals, the bilinguals have an intercultural approach to the learning of language. This interprets that the bilinguals have the capacity to identify and investigate the norms, boundaries and values of their cultural perspective and the same to the second language (Baker, 2006). With this in perspective, it is expected that the bilinguals have a broader comprehension of human behavior and apply their cultural understanding on other aspects. This is possible as through culture, the bilinguals are well conversant with the verity that language encodes and reproduces cultural cues. It is evident that devoid of understanding of cultural knowledge of a language, meaningful language learning is not possible. Baker (2006) indicates that the bilinguals have access to various languages that helps them have an in-depth comprehension of other cultures; thus, study these languages successfully as contrasted to the monolinguals. Baker (2006) also indicates that language and its culture cannot be delinked. Since language develops around culture, the bilinguals are more advantaged as they express the culture of that language in a unique way as the bilinguals are endowed with the traditions and memories of the cultural expressions of the various languages. In an application of this fact in the classroom setting, it is validated to conclude that the bilinguals have an understanding of the intercultural approach of language over the monolinguals. In the long run, it is expected that the bilinguals will become adept communicators in the second language both in speech and in writing. Baker (2006) is also quick to note that culture is exemplified in the manner in which people interrelate through language in text and speech. Since the bilinguals have already explored the aspects of the second language, they are well placed to study yet another language through exploring the culture of the other language. The bilinguals are also expected to benefit more in the intercultural language classroom setting. This is possible because they have the foreign culture visible and the patterns of the language are analyzed. The monolinguals, on the other hand, are intercultural incompetent. This results to them not being able to learn about the culture of different people as well as contrast them. Interactions are, therefore, extremely difficult, and most of the monolingual learners will not interact easily with other learners. Moreover, since they do not recognize the cultural boundaries of other cultures, Baker (2006) indicates that such learners cannot fit in the classroom setting that forces them to draw a link between their first culture and that of the target language. The monolinguals, as a result, lack the intercultural competence and will continually find it intricate to fit in the culture of a second language just like the bilinguals. The author continues to indicate that the ability to interpret meanings from texts is vital in the course of learning a second language (Baker, 2006). In line with this argument, it is evident that the bilinguals have the capacity to combine various strategies that help them apply existing knowledge, make conclusions and comparisons, contextualize amongst others (Baker, 2006). For the case of the monolinguals, they lack this ability and cannot transfer their skills from one language to another. This questions their capacity to use language as well as apply the functions of their first language to the second language. This factor hence validates the argument that the bilinguals have an added advantage in the study of a second language unlike the monolinguals. On an interesting perspective, Baker (2006) denounces the perception that bilingualism has constantly resulted to diminishment of the first language. Baker (2006) indicates that through bilingualism, the learners enjoy the fact that the two languages are stored in different parts of the brain. In the long run, the bilinguals enjoy transfer of concepts learnt in one language to the other language. This therefore does not mean that the bilinguals are disadvantaged; but means that their language acquisition skills are enhanced. Despite there being disparities in the grammar and writing systems of the second language, the bilinguals have the ability to construe meanings from the texts provided. The bilinguals have higher cognitive abilities and strategies and can make more meanings from texts in the second language. 2.4. Bilingualism as an Additive Effect on Language Acquisition Despite bilingualism being a plus for second language learning, bilinguals have had added advantages of learning a third language as opposed to the monolinguals. In the research conducted by Cenoz (2003), bilinguals are better placed to study a third language unlike the monolinguals. Despite the third language being taught in an instantaneous or a consecutive approach, the bilinguals had an added advantage because they progress faster in such setting though their mistakes may be many. The monolinguals, on the other hand, are too keen in their language setting, produce minimal errors, but will still be too slow in the context of learning the third language. The author continues to indicate that bilingual learners are also advantaged in terms of sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic capability (Cenoz, 2003).This ability allows the learners adjust well to the second language learners. This also explains why the bilingual learners transferred more content to the second language than simply transferring words. Proficiency in the first and second language definitely affects learning of the language (Cenoz, 2003). Since the monolinguals have lower levels of proficiency, they have lower language transfer. The bilinguals also benefit from the verity that they have high levels of recency, therefore, will borrow a lot of words from the language they learnt previously in an efficient manner (Cenoz, 2003).This is yet another aspect that validates the aspect that the bilinguals are more advantaged in terms of their literacy skills over the monolinguals. 2.5. Communication sensitivity and Bilingualism In terms of communication sensitivity, the bilinguals have been indicates to be more sensitive to communication gradations unlike the monolinguals. As seen in the research conducted by Schwartz, Leikin & Share (2005), bi-illiterate bilingualism allows the bilinguals to communicate in more than one language both in written and spoken communication. Schwartz, Leikin & Share (2005) also continue to indicate that biliteracy is the major variable that determines second language learning. In their research on the Russian-Hebrew speakers, fluency was mostly experienced among the bilinguals and scored a considerably higher percentage of phonological awareness in the tasks provided (Schwartz, Leikin & Share, 2005). The learners also communicate well while reading tasks over the monolinguals. The high scores in the second language scores among the bilinguals is a good basis for justification why the bilinguals have more advantages over the monolinguals. 2.6. Language independence As far as language independence is concerned, Bialystok (2007) indicates that the bilingual learners can evaluate an overall pattern in a language with more ease than the monolinguals. This kind of independence, as Bialystok (2007) asserts that the bilingual learners gain language independence at a tender age as they predisposed to languages at an early stage in their lives. Since the bilinguals can perceive a situation more rationally, they easily focus on communication problems, thinking and perception of a second language. These learners are, therefore, more creative and divergent in the second language classroom. Hornberger & Skilton-Sylvester (2000) explain that bilingualism and literacy are inter-related especially when communication is in question. The bilingual learners will in this instance have more linguistic input than the monolingual learners. This is also another aspect that places the bilingual learners at a higher bar than the monolingual learners in the second language classroom. 3.0. Monolinguals have an advantage over in terms of literacy over the bilingual learners On the contrary, monolinguals also have their own advantages. As Pappamihiel & Lynn (2014) indicate, the monolinguals possess a wider range of vocabularies as they accumulated a huge percentage of words in the language in question. In addition, it is evident that the monolinguals have a higher ability to retrieve words in the languages in question than the bilinguals. This allows the monolinguals learn a second language in an easier way as they can relate to concepts being taught in an easy way. It is also vital to note that the monolinguals have an added advantage as they have better fluency than the bilinguals (Pappamihiel & Lynn, 2014). This explains that the monolinguals can produce as many words as possible from the letters given in the second language. 4.0. Implications for the teaching of second language literacy Bilingualism has major implications for second language literacy. Since the bilinguals are proficient in terms of use of vocabulary, the instructors will have an easy time dealing with these learners. On another positive note, the bilinguals are more flexible and innovative; thus, have high cognitive flexibility. Teaching such learners is a trouble-free task as the learners are already motivated in their own accord. The bilinguals have been said to have acquired language independence. This aspect allows for second language literacy to be possible and extremely easy for the bilingual learners as opposed to the monolinguals. Simply put, second language literacy works better for bilinguals as opposed to the monolinguals who have a narrower range to vocabulary and no independence of language. For the monolinguals, the teachers have to continually seek strategies that will incorporate these learners into the classroom setting so as they can be at the same level with the bilinguals. Pappamihiel & Lynn (2014) recommend that the teachers take advantage of the proficiency of the first language as displayed by the monolinguals if the learners have to successfully learn the second language. The teachers may also engage in conversations in the first language, as Pappamihiel & Lynn (2014) recommends, in an attempt to boost the monolinguals’ confidence in the learning setting as well as detect their learning abilities. In the long run, a full participatory classroom is expected despite the drawbacks of the monolingual learners. 5.0. Summary and conclusion From the essay, it is justifiable to conclude that the bilinguals have an added advantage over the monolinguals in terms of literacy skills. The points for the added advantages for the bilinguals outweigh those for the monolinguals. This essay, therefore takes the position that bilinguals are better placed than the monolinguals. The essay found out that bilinguals can communicate easily as they have a wide range of vocabularies as well as understand various social contexts in the second language classroom. Since the bilingual learners also have the ability to read and write in two languages, the bilinguals have a chance to explore literatures of different languages and ideas of the second language. From the essay, it is also evident that the bilinguals can easily tolerate other cultural groups as through language, the concepts of culture are well brought out. The bilinguals have also indicated sensitivity in communication nuances. It is this aspect that gives them a higher meta-linguistic awareness, flexibility and sensitivity. Bilingual learners, as a result, have an affirmed literacy level that is indeed way beyond that of the monolinguals. Their overall success in literacy skills is basically attributed to their being illiterate. The Post-Essay Individual Reflection After researching on the topic, my perception on the topic has not changed a bit. I have realized that the bilinguals can communicate with lots of persons in different contexts as they have mastery of language. Just like I also thought, the research has validated that bilingual learners can read and write in more than one language as they have a wide mastery of the different language. The perception that the bilinguals can have their earlier learnt languages erased due to the novel information acquired of a different language is fallacious. The research indicated that the bilinguals have the capability to store the information of the two languages since they retrieve the required information when necessary. I have also discovered that after learning a second language, the bilinguals can easily learn a third language unlike the monolinguals. They are also extremely tolerant since they understand the cultures of the different languages they recognize. Bilinguals will continually have an extra advantage just like I thought simply for the reason that they can use different languages effectively; thus, outdo their peers in the major cognitive tasks that allow the successful accomplishment of learning a second language. If a learner does not possess meta-linguistic know how, then they will have major difficulties in understanding how language works and the elements that comprise a particular language system such as phonetics, phonology and even the syntax rules. The bilinguals enjoy these advantages and are more sensitive in the course of communication unlike their monolingual counterparts. References Baker, C. (2006). Literacy, biliteracy and multiliteracies for bilinguals. In Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Bialystok, E. (1997). Effects of bilingualism & biliteracy on children’s emerging concepts of print. Developmental psychology, 33(3), 420-440. Bialystok, E. (2007). Acquisition of literacy in bilingual children: A framework for research. Language Learning, 57(s1), 45-77. Cenoz, J. (2003).The additive effect of bilingualism on third language acquisition: A review. International Journal of bilingualism, 7 (1), 71-87. Cummins, J. (1976). The influence of bilingualism on cognitive growth: A synthesis of research findings and explanatory hypotheses. Working papers on bilingualism, 9, 1-43. Hornberger, N. H. & Skilton-Sylvester, E. (2000). Revisiting the continua of biliteracy: International and critical perspectives. Language and Education, 14(2), 96–122.  Schwartz, M., Leikin, M. & Share, D. L. (2005). Biliterate bilingualism versus monoliterate bilingualism. Written Language and Literacy, 8(2), 179-205. Pappamihiel, E. & Lynn, C.A. (2014). How Can Monolingual Teachers Take Advantage of Learners’ Native Language in Class? Childhood Education, 90 (4), 291-297. DOI: 10.1080/00094056.2014.937258. Read More