Sports Education - Literature review Example

Sport Education اخر نسخه مشعل Sport Education is an internationally recognised model of curriculum and instruction used to support the teaching of Physical Education (PE) in school. The model aims to help young people become competent, literate, and enthusiastic sportspeople (Siedentop,1994). There is concern amongst PE teachers that pupils who show less of an aptitude for PE or sport are not as socially accepted in comparison to their more talented peers (Siedentop 1994). To that end, Kinchin (2001) talks of Sport Education as a mechanism for countering these concerns by providing opportunities for pupils to have a balanced social and educational experience working as a team, and achieving a wider range of outcomes. Sport Education is a model that aids the development of an aspiring athlete through a coaching model, Both Hastie (1998) and Ormond et al. (1995) have observed the difference in gains by students with differing abilities through Sport Education. The model allows pupils to accomplish through participation, goals are not just attributed to physical aspects of sport but also to strategy, leadership, administrating participation, group work skills, refereeing, training, sport history, rules and conventions (Siedentop and Kinchin 2003). According to Siedentop (1994) PE has often been characterised as skills imparted by teachers in out of real game scenarios. Lack of stimulation because of un-strategic game play with little or no attention to skill leaves some pupils unfulfilled. Sport Education therefore allows pupils to manage their own experiences whilst contributing in group work and experiencing the benefits of team affiliation and learning in persisting groups (Ennis 1999). Siedentop and Vander Hastie (2012) describe the six keys features of this pedagogical model that were introduced to replicate sports these are seasons, culminating events, record keeping, affiliation, formal competition and festivity. Sport Education has three characteristics that sets it apart from institutional sports, these are as follows: Participation requirement – in that full participation throughout the season is expected for all students Developmentally appropriate involvement - sports used in the model will match development, experience and ability of the learner. Diverse roles - Sport Education provides a variety of experiences, the type that are not normally available in most youth or school environments. Pupils learn to coach, referee games, and keep scores. Sport education model aims to help pupils to become knowledgeable and skillful in game play (Hastie, Sinelnikov, & Guarino, 2009) and (Hastie 1998) and there are also opportunities to experience some of the technical, administrative, media and promotional areas in sport such as managing, publicizing, broadcasting and coaching. Sport Education therefore provides a comprehensive and complete sporting outlook for pupils. The model ensures that all the tools are made available to aid the formulation of student career aspirations in sport and relating professions. Ennis (1996) suggests that such more equitable methods are expelling the disaffection some students have previously felt in traditional PE experience. Sport education affords complete and more authentic experiences for pupils(Hastie 2012,and Wallhead and O’Sullivan, 2006) compared to traditional physical education. By this, sport education also aimes to help benefit from a range of curriculum objectives to demonstrate competency, literacy and enthusiasm for sport. According to Siedentop (1998) this can be achieved through pedagogical initiatives such as direct instruction, cooperative small-group work, and peer teaching which reveal favorable results opposed to directive drill-oriented teaching. Nicholls (1984) argues that traditionally success in PE was measured in high capability and that there now needs to be a focus on making PE lesson more valuable for all and to expand the range of outcomes available to pupils. Sport Education has three broad aims: The first aim is to achieve “competency”. Siedentop(1994) has defined “competence in SE” by stating “ a competent sportsperson has sufficient skills to participate in games satisfactory, understands and can execute strategies appropriate to the complexity of play, and is acknowledgeable game player” (p.4). SE is designed within the framework of physical education (PE) in schools so as to provide genuine and pedagogically enriched sports experiences for both male and female students. As explained earlier to SE has three requirements – every student should remain involved all the time as part of small teams, game rules should be designed to match the ability of students, and students should also focus on non-playing activities like coaching, referring, training, scorekeeping, managing etc. These features enable high competency in students which means students are efficiently knowledgeable about game technicalities, and therefore can instill strategies that are appropriate to sustain interest in games (Hastie, 2012). Various studies have demonstrate increased level of perceived competence among SE students which enhances motivation among students to participate in SE e.g. (Wallhead and O’Sullivan, 2006). In the article “Sport Education: physical education for the new millennium?” the authors Tristan Wallhead and Mary O’Sullivan (2005) have analyzed the SE curriculum model in order to study its concept, objectives and framework. The authors looked into the impact of SE on students who study it as part of their PE. This article attempts to suggest future research on SE. For this study, the authors have amassed 62 peer-reviewed journal articles. The articles have been separated into two groups – 34 theoretical or application articles and 28 articles based on data findings. It was concluded that SE curriculum should be able to inculcate true sportsmanship in students so as to create competent sportspeople. To avoid cheating and superiority, every player should have equal opportunity to participate in every position of play. This helps in inculcating responsibility, cooperation and trust skills. It has also been observed that students exhibit competent leadership skills when participating in small groups with common objectives. Enthusiasm among students for enhancing their skills and improving their success rate has also been noticed we need reference here (Hastie 2012). Also, students behave more positively when given power of making decisions. The authors have suggested that future research should focus on peer communication and performance outcomes of tasks managed by students. Jan Wright and Lisette Burrows (2006) in their article “Re-conceiving ability in physical education: a social analysis” have attempted to understand the concept of ability in PE, and also how ability is perceived and valued by different student groups. It is also explored how ability is integrated in PE, and how it can affect the young generation. As methodology, the authors have adopted the concepts of “physical and cultural capital” (p.276) from Bourdieu’s works. They have assembled various data from a number of practical projects to explore the relevance of ability in PE and sports played in schools. The integration of ability in physical education can schools can help evaluating competence of students. However the attributes associated with physical ability should be carefully categorized such that no differentiating impact is brought upon. Hence sports education where ability can be determined with performance codes can help in assessing physical competence among students. In “The development of skill and tactical competencies during a season of badminton” Peter A. Hastie, Oleg A. Sinelnikov & A.J. Guarino (2009) have determined whether any specific sports curriculum has the ability to improve efficiency of students’ skills and tactical knowledge. The authors collected data from 41 eighth-grade students including 18 boys and 23 girls. The data was based on their skills exhibited during a badminton test, their level of efficiency and strategic knowledge. Finding students showed a great deal of improvement in their playing skills from controlling the shuttle to aggressively hitting it. Moreover, the students also improved in the matter of strategic decisions. The bottom-line is that SE is framed in the manner that provides students with sufficient practice sessions that hone their playing skills. The purpose of Stuart Fairclough’s (2003) article “Physical activity, perceived competence and enjoyment during high school physical education” was to gauge the amount of physical involvement and approach towards competency of English secondary school children. A secondary purpose is to consider these variables based on gender and their outlook towards individual and group activities. As methodology, 73 students were selected from five state high schools in England. The age of the students varied from 11 to 14 years. To gauge their level of physical activity (PA), their heartbeat was recorded during PE lessons. To understand their approach towards competency and how well they enjoyed the lessons, they were asked to fill questionnaires after every lesson. The results of the study showed that PE enjoyment level of boys was associated with moderate level of PA, while for girls the level of enjoyment reduced with greater degree of PA. Secondly, it was seen that boys showed more enthusiasm during group activities while girls were more interested towards individual activities. Therefore their performance in sports education can determine how well the students enjoy their lessons. This may set a background to understand the importance of sports education in schools and their implications for girls and boys. In “Skill and Tactical Development during a Sport Education Season” Peter A. Hastie (1998) has studied the efficiency of SE in improving the skills and knowledge of students. This was achieved by assessing the competency level of students during the beginning of a SE course and comparing it with their level of competency at the end of the same course. For this purpose, 4 boys and 2 girls were selected from “Eagles” Ultimate team from a rural school in Alabama USA. They were subjected to 30 PE classes for one hour on daily basis. A committee of eight students was engaged for rating the performance level of participants. It was found that the students exhibited considerable level of improvement in the context of selection and game execution. The most important finding was that students with poor skill level did not feel alienated from their skilled counterparts and they did not feel that they were not provided sufficient opportunities for improvement. Also, under this strategy there are enough opportunities for practice sessions, and this allows the students to get the feeling of usefulness. Spittle and Byrne (2009) examined how the features of SE (seasons, affiliation, formal competition, record keeping, festivity, and a culminating event) might influence students’ motivation in secondary physical education. This was formatted in 10 lessons each one hour and forty minutes in length. Six classes were selected from one co-educational schools which included 97 male and 18 female students aged between 13-14 years old participating in hockey, soccer and Australian rules football. 41students participated in SE and 74 students in traditional physical education classes. Three questionnaires were completed by students, including: The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, The Intrinsic Motivation Inventory and The Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (Spittle and Byrne, 2009). In their findings significant differences were found in perceived changes in competence between SE and the traditional model. Mastery climate correlated with task orientation and intrinsic motivation, as well as this performance climate correlated with ego orientation. In conclusion the SE model had a positive effect on student competence. In “Participation in afterschool sport: relationship to perceived need support, need satisfaction, and motivation in physical education” Roomet Viira and Andre Koka (2012) have studied the different views that exist regarding self-determination theories among students from different schools. Under such theories students have different perspectives concerning the level of support they should receive from teachers as well as peers that accentuate their motivation. There are also other factors like the desire to prove oneself competent, desire to exhibit individuality and the desire to become socially acceptable. The authors have collected data of 306 boys and 343 girls from Estonian secondary school students. The students were encouraged to participate in afterschool sports and according to their tenure of participation were divided into three groups. First group consisted of those students who did not participate or participated for up to three months. Second group had students who participated for up to four years, and the third group had students who participated for more than four years. It was observed that boys with different afterschool sports activities exhibited different levels of desire to express individuality and need of support from teachers. On the other hand, girls with different afterschool activities held different views on levels of competency and the need of support from peers. Further, it was seen that boys from first group tend to believe that teachers provide them with limited options and behave less amicably with them. Similarly, girls from third group believe that their peers are more friendly and supportive towards them. Hence imparting proper and healthy sports education in schools would help in bringing out individual strengths in all students irrespective of gender. Treatment of boys and girls in sports education should be done differentially such that this difference is not noted. In “Gender, perceived competence and the enjoyment of physical education in children: a longitudinal examination” John Cairney et al. (2012) have studied how gender of students is a determining factor for their enjoyment of PE which in turn determines their perception of competence in sports. For this study, the authors have selected all students from a public school in Southern Ontario. The students were subjected to scrutiny for 5 times during a period of 5 years. Their fitness levels were monitored by trained research assistants. It was observed that students who perceived that they have high competency in sports expressed PE as a form of enjoyment. However, this association is also influenced by students’ gender. This is reflected in the finding that boys find PE more enjoyable than girls. Further it was observed that boys with perception of low competency exhibited low levels of PE enjoyment and this remained consisted over time. On the other hand, for girls the level of enjoyment declined over time. Therefore, it was concluded that students who believe they have high competency level exhibit equal levels of PE enjoyment irrespective of gender type. Ganciu Mihaela and Ganciu Oana Maria (2014) in “Motivational Strategies of attracting students in practicing physical activities” have studied the different patterns of motivations that exist in different students who take part in PE courses. For the purpose of this research, questionnaires were distributed to 100 second year students from Bucharest University with ages varying from 18 to 25 years. Majority of the respondents (72 percent) felt that sports have a positive influence on their health while only 3 percent considered sports as extension of intellectual activity. Also, 60.5 percent of the respondents considered that sports curriculum should include theoretical formats. In the context of motivation, as high as 63 percent of the respondents expressed that providing specific academic qualifications as target will encourage them to participate in SE. Also, more than 50 percent students favoured examinations both at the beginning and end of SE course so that they can compare their performance levels. The authors have stated that setting challenging goals can make SE more attractive for students. Attaining the goals can increase the self esteem of students leading to higher level of efficiency. Perlman (2012) in “The influence of the Sport Education Model on a motivated students’ in-class physical activity” studied the impact of Sport Education Model (SEM) on the physical activity of a motivated students. For the study, 24 male and 45 female Year 9 PE students were taken who were identified as motivated students. This course adopted skill-drill-game approach (SDG) under which students were induced to play attacking games like soccer and basketball. It was found that sports oriented courses can encourage more PA among motivated students. The results of this study also proved that a motivated students under SEM are more physically active than those who were in SDG class. However, in initial phases both group of students exhibited equal level of physical activity although with SEM students are engaged in theoretical classes which do not require PA. Perlman has attributed this to the fact that motivated students in SDG class do not show much interest in participating in any activity or non-activity based behaviors. In “Children’s perceived competence and enjoyment in physical education and physical activity outside school” Bob Carroll and Julia Loumidis (2001) have studied the association between students’ perception and their degree of enjoyment in PE. As methodology, 468 boys and 454 girls were selected from 32 British primary schools. Questionnaires were distributed among the participants in order to assess their “enjoyment of physical education, perceptions of competence in physical education and physical activity” (p.28). It was found that girls exhibit less PA than boys outside school. Also, less than 33 percent of the participants got involved in recommended level of PA. It was concluded that the manner in which students perceive their competence level influences their enjoyment level, thus confirming motivational theory. It was also found that primary school students who harbor low perception of competency in particular sports in schools tend to avoid the same sports outside school. In the article “Integrating Sport into the Physical Education Curriculum in New Zealand Secondary Schools”, Grant (1992) observes the importance of including SE in school curriculum and SE could help generate positive virtues in young people and help in improving knowledge, skill and individual qualities like self-knowledge, self-esteem and cooperation. For the purpose of the study a research project comprising Grade 10 physical education program was designed to observe the impact of sports education especially to ensure equal competition. The curriculum model had six key features - records which are kept and publicized, seasons ends including all participants, students remain in groups for season; they learn their part and take more responsibility. Findings show that from a teaching point of view, competition is needed to provide a motive to the individual and the team. The most important benefit is that students learn to be respected as a team member. While they were interested in defeating one another during the first sessions, the second stage found them more interested in developing their skills. Then as the season moved forward the interaction and cooperation between students increased. Conclusion SE has key role in encourages a physically active life for young people. A carefully designed SE season can increase the competency level of students which in turn can make the course enjoyable for them (Perlman 2012; Carroll and Loumidis, 2001; Viira and Koka, 2012; Cairney et al, 2012). This increases motivation among students to participate in SE courses that are provided as optional in their school curriculum. The idea is to inculcate a sense of equality among students so that students from all backgrounds and with different levels of competency can participate in SE without getting a sense of alienation. References Alexander, K., Taggart, A., and Medland, A. 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European Journal of Physical Education, Vol.8, No.1, pp.5-18 Grant, B. (1992) Integrating Sport Into the Physical Education Curriculum in New Zealand Secondary Schools, Quest Vol. 44, pp.304-316 Grant, B.C., Treddinick, P. and Hodge, K. (1992) ‘Sport education in physical education’, New Zealand Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 25: 3-6. Hastie, P.A. (1998) Skill and Tactical Development during a Sport Education Season. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol.69, No.4, pp.368-79 Hastie, P. (1998) The participation and perception of girls within a unit of sport education, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17: 157-171. Hastie, P. (1998) Skill and tactical development during a sport education season. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 16: 88-103. Hastie, P.A. (2012) Sport Education: International Perspectives, NY: Routledge Hastie, P.A., Ojeda, D.M. & Luquin, A.C. (2011) A Review of Research on Sport Education: 2004 to the present. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Vol.16, No.2, pp.103-32 Hastie, P.A., Sinelnikov, O.A. & Guarino, A.J. (2009) The development of skill and tactical competencies during a season of badminton. European Journal of Sport Science, Vol.9, No.3, pp.133-40 Kinchin, G.D. (2001) A high skilled pupils experience with sport education, The ACHIPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal, 48(3-4): 5-9. Mihaela, G. & Maria, G.O. (2014) Motivational Strategies of attracting students in practicing physical activities. European Scientific Journal, Vol.10, No.1, pp.68-77 Nicholls, J.G. (1984) ‘Achievement Motivation: Conceptions of Ability, Subjective Experience,Task Choice, and Performance’, Psychological Review 91: 328–46. Ormond, T.C., DeMarco, G.M., Smith, R.M. and Fischer, K.A. (1995) ‘Comparison of the sport education and traditional approaches to teaching secondary school basketball’,Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (Supplement): A-66. Perlman, D. (2012) The influence of the Sport Education Model on motivated students’ in-class physical activity. European Physical Education Review, Vol.18, No.3, pp.335-45 Siedentop ,D (1994) Sport Education: Quality PE through positive sport experiences. Champaign: Human Kinetics. Siedentop, D. (1998) “What is Sport Education and how does it work?” Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 69(4): 18-20. Siedentop, D. and Kinchin, G.D. (2003) What makes sport education different? British Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 34 (2): 10-11. Spittle, M. & Byrne, K. (2009) The influence of Sport Education on student motivation in physical education, Physical education and sport pedagogy, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 253-266. Viira, R. & Koka, A. (2012) Participation in afterschool sport: relationship to perceived need support, need satisfaction, and motivation in physical education. Kinesiology, Vol.44, No.2, pp.199-208 Wallhead, T. & O’Sullivan, M. (2005) Sport Education: physical education for the new millennium? Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, Vol.10, No.2, pp.181-210 Wright, J. & Burrows, S. (2006) Re-conceiving ability in physical education: a social analysis. Sport, Education and Society, Vol.11, No.3, pp.275-91 Read More