Education Funding from 1800-1900 - Research Paper Example

Education Funding From 1800-1900 The state of Virginia is a key indicator, in terms of American politics and policy enactment. This is increasingly been seen and felt, within the larger American society; in terms of conservative ideals versus the increasing liberal thought. To be noted is that the southern region is majorly conservative vis-à-vis the liberalized northern region. The society there was fundamentally influenced by the end results of the American Civil War (1861-5); which left it politically, in turmoil. Dozens of counties, presently in West Virginia were annexed, to be joined later by two more. Even an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court, launched by the state’s commonwealth, was unsuccessful. Tarter (2007) portrays that the loss of political control, by the Readjuster Party, and U.S. Senator William Mahone, during 1883, witnessed the regain of state legislature by the Democrats. It is this regain of political control, which led to a number of controversial issues, with regard to civil rights and freedoms of all American citizens (9). First, was the Democrats’ utility of both a new state constitution (1901), and statutes; where provisions such as literacy tests, residency requirements and poll tax, resulted in disfranchisement. Populations affected the most, were the African Americans, as well as a majority of poor whites. It is only after the passage of legislation pertaining to civil rights (mid-1960s) that comprehensive change was witnessed (15). Historical context: the creation of a one-party state The White Democrats enhanced their supremacy within state and local politics throughout the first half of the 20th Century especially with the aid of the Byrd Organization. The head of the entity, Senator Harry F. Byrd Sr. was firmly in control till the 1960s (Tarter 24). The Politics of the State The Democratic Party of Virginia, based in Richmond, is an affiliate of the national party. Governed through a State Party Plan, the organization has historically proven its capacity and extent of political control. As Lowe (1986) portends, this has been shown by way of the fact that out of the 39 governors elected, 34 of them have been Democrats vis-à-vis 5 Republicans. The Republican Party, based also in Richmond; the Commonwealth of Virginia, has made some gains, especially after the 1990s. Previously, as the largest, most important and most populous colony, the State of Virginia was virtually under the leadership of the Church of England (60). The State of Virginia As a result, the established practice was for local taxes, to be funneled through the church’s local parish in the aim of handling the local government’s expenditure. This was inclusive of poor relief, infrastructure and salary payment. To be noted is the fact that there was never a bishop of the church, within the state; instead, laymen constituted the local vestry, controlling the parish, as well as handling of local affairs (62-3). The elected House of Burgesses – the local and state assembly, enacted various religious laws, which made the state a foothold of Anglicanism. This meant the establishment of uniformity, with regard to social contexts and substance, being founded on the constitution and cannons of the Church of England. Religious Foundation and Basis The establishment of private prayer and devotion, as a means of leaving a sincere and active religious life, provided many conservatives, with an avenue of policymaking. From Methodists and Baptists, to Presbyterians, amongst other evangelicals; their rallying point was in the reformation of social morality and order (65). This they achieved by way of destabilizing the traditional masculinity principle; to be replaced by new conservative male leadership roles, based on Christian principles. This dissenting notion, against the Anglican Church, gradually grew stronger, fundamentally influencing the state’s politics. This was to continue into the Revolution, where a clear separation was present. Thomas Jefferson, was to eventually succeed, in disestablishing the Anglican Church, in the year 1786 (Lowe 67). The 19th Century as Kolchin (1993) alludes, witnessed remarkable vitality, in the rising religious way of life within the former colony (most populous, important and largest). The buildup of varying kinds of churches symbolized the religious tone present within the colonial setup existing then. These were reflective, of not only the prevailing traditions and customs, but also the social status and wealth of the various denominations which built them. A form of deism also prevailed, influential in the growing Unitarian ideology present then (34). Through this, Baptists, Methodists and Presbyterians enhanced the individual nature of religious obligation, observing personal responsibility, guilt and conscience as taught in the Christian way of life. To follow in influence and significance, was the Second Great Awakening; further influencing the prevailing populations’ piety, self-awareness and ritual ceremonies. Schooling and educational funding, was thus carried out by religious denominations; each according to its stronghold (39). This went hand in hand with the hardened colonial slavery enacted; by way of a racial caste structure, implemented through partus law. Slavery was thus utilized in cultivating the highly lucrative tobacco cash crop. As part of the future Southern Confederacy, strict slavery was enhanced, as the basis of the states’ economic endeavor(Kolchin 47). Dominated primarily by elite planters, the religious zeal was often embodied in the separation of roles amongst the races. Black Americans, mostly slaves from West Africa, were to later on acquire a voice through the Great Awakening. As Harrison (1999) provides, this was due to their inclusion within the church assemblies, amongst other fundamental rights and freedoms being recognized. This however did not entirely reduce the while supremacy battles and ideals which raged on. Education was hence racially exclusive, with whites studying in good educational institutions, as opposed to the poorly built, sparsely resourced black institutions (194). Governor Francis H. Pierpont, elected in the year 1860, was to prove crucial, in the Reconstruction era. The Civil war, devastated the state, in terms of its infrastructure and agricultural plantation basis, in addition to social cohesion within the diverse social fabric. General John Schofield was also vital during the military rule of the state, when it was administered as the first military District; from 1867-69 (197). James Hunnicutt, a fiery supporter of the Reconstruction era, took control of the Republican Party, during the 1960s through his coalition of freedmen and poor white populations. Tax reformation was crucial, as it was crucial in enabling the establishment of a system of free public schooling (Harrison 200). This often pitted General Schofield and his friend and nominated provisional governor – Henry Wells, against Hunnicutt and a majority of Scalawags who formed part of the opposition. Mary (2010), portrays that William Mahone, leader of the moderate ‘True’ Republicans, was instrumental in defeating the disfranchisement of ex-Confederates (mainly whites) during the Reconstruction era. Their candidate of choice for governor – Gilbert C. Walker, was aptly elected, defeating the Radical Republicans in a non-violent manner (26). Politics came to a headlong between the ‘Funders’ and ‘Readjusters’ with regard to debt repayment. William Mahone led to the latter, forming a coalition of black and white Republicans, as well as conservative Democrats (30). Their mission was inspired by the need to end the power of established privilege and wealth (white supremacy) present, in addition to promoting public education. Their persistence and strive, culminated in the election of their candidate, William Cameron, as governor from 1882-86; with Mahone serving as Senator. Harrison Riddleberger, fellow Readjustor was also in the senate during this time-frame (Mary 34). In conclusion, their success ended in 1885 when Fitzhugh Lee, a Democrat was elected governor. John Mercer Langston, made history as the elected black Congressman, from the Petersburg area, under the Republican ticket. It is unfortunately this period, which later on was to witness successful disfranchisement of African Americans and a majority of poor, rural white populations. Segregation policies were adhered to, enhanced by the presence of literary tests and poll taxes. White supremacy, by way of imposing Jim Crow’s ideals, was to permeate in the state for another 80 years, until the advent of the Progressive Era, during the start of the 20th Century. Works Cited Harrison, George Gilliam. "Making Virginia Progressive." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 107.2 1999: 189–222. Electronic. Kolchin, Peter. American Slavery, 1619–1877. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. Print. Lowe, Richard. "Another Look at Reconstruction in Virginia." Civil War History, 32.1 1986: 56–76. Electronic. Mary Farmer-Kaiser. Freedwomen and the Freedmen's Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public Policy in the Age of Emancipation. Fordham U.P., 2010. Print. Tarter, Brent. "Making History in Virginia." Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 115.1 2007: 3-54. Electronic. Read More