Obstacles to Fluency for Deaf Readers - Essay Example

Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension Vocabulary is defined as “the storehouse of word meanings that we draw on to comprehend what is said to us, express our thoughts, or interpret what we read” (Moats, 2005, p. 7). In terms of literacy development, comprehension and vocabulary are very important elements (Hamm, 2010). Since vocabulary provides building blocks for higher order, it can be noted that it significantly contributes to comprehension (Lucker and Cooke, 2010). Deaf children have access to language especially during the early years and it can be seen that they often lack social interactions that give them the opportunity to learn words (Marschark, Lang &Albertini, 2002). Basically, reading is not only about translating vocabulary but it also involves things like decoding texts, interpreting symbols as well as constructing different texts information into meaningful information (Emerson, 2010). The first stage towards fluent reading is acquisition of age-appropriate vocabulary. Many studies have shown that there is strong relationship vocabulary knowledge and reading development (Singleton, Morhan, DiGello, Wiles & Rivers, 2004). Paul (2009) identifies a research done by LaSasso and Davey (1987) which states that there is a strong correlation between vocabulary knowledge reading comprehension. Students who perform well in reading vocabulary tests also perform well in reading comprehension. Basically, comprehension and vocabulary development are regarded as significant elements in literacy development (Luckner et al., 2005/2006; Schirmer&McGough, 2005; Stewart & Clark, 2003). Obstacles to Fluency for Deaf Readers Deaf readers often show difficulties in reading especially in areas that are related to vocabulary knowledge (Marschark, Lang &Albertini, 2002). In case of students who are DHH, chances of negative outcomes are high as a result of the role played by literacy with regards to interaction with DHH and hearing colleagues. Reading is one of the most difficult things for students who are DHH in their academic career. Research has shown that students with average hearing loss often graduate from high school with at least a fourth grade in reading comprehension skills. There are many reasons for this poor progress such as lack of knowledge or experience, poor vocabularies, poor skills in constructing meaning from English texts, and problems of recoding print into sign language (Howell and Luckner, 2003). Luckner et al. (2005/2006) identified five different obstacles that affect people from developing vocabulary knowledge among DHH students: “a) lack of access to the phonological code, b) limited fluency with the language prior to attending school, c) lack of early literacy experiences prior to entering school, d) a delay in the acquisition of vocabulary, and e) difficulties with lower level reading skills.” Stewart and Clarke (2003) posit to the effect that DHH children face many specialized and distinct problems especially in literacy development in English. Children often learn language by practicing to use it on a daily basis. However, about 90% of the DHH children born into hearing families have problems related to little communication practice as a result of two reasons namely: a) since the families use spoken language, DHH children have little practice in terms of communicating with the members of the family b) the DHH children also need to grasp English while learning to read as well as to write (Hamm, 2010). The Importance of Literacy for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students Building vocabulary is the first step in learning how to write and read independently. Literacy development has been the goal of educating the deaf since the founding of the first school of the deaf in the United States in 1817. There are many communication approaches that have been used to achieve this particular goal. Regardless of the fact that there are now almost 200 years of effort, DHH students often leave school with “language skills that are grossly underdeveloped and, in many cases, are not even achieving functional literacy” (Hamm, 2010, p. 34). The majority of these people with DHH have poor literacy skills which affect their ability to perform well in schools which entails that poor literacy rates negatively impact on their academic skills. Spencer and Tomblin (2009) have indicated that more than 30% of deaf children often leave high school in the United States illiterate. DHH students often have experience related to reading and writing but they have problems with the sounds of the words and letters. Thus, the readers should possess a “mental set” to be able to value writing and reading (Rosenblatt, 2001). Specialized knowledge is required in order for people with hearing difficulties especially students with DHH since they find writing and reading extremely difficult (Luckneretal, 2005/2006). Luckneretal (2005/2006) also state that students who read for 20 minutes every day are in a position to read at least two million more words per year compared to students who cannot read. Strong receptive vocabularies are required by students in order for them to read and write. DHH children’s patterns of hearing development are similar to that of hearing children though they pass through different stages (Stewart&Clarke, 2003). There are many factors that may impact on the development of literacy among DHH children. These include the following: the level of hearing loss, age of hearing loss, the cause of hearing loss (etiology) which may also be attributed to neurological factors, age of diagnosis of the hearing problem, the parent to child communication pattern, the status of hearing of the parents, as well as the acceptance of the parents of the condition of their children (Stewart&Clarke, 2003). Literacy development is prioritized for all children especially under the NCLB. However, literacy levels of DHH students remain below required levels (Luckneretal. 2005/2006). The National Reading Panel (NRP; 2000) and NCLB (2002) are supporters of reading instructions that are based on scientific research. In most cases, it can be seen that instructional strategies that are used by DHH students are not linked to any research but are based on mere assumptions as well as historical practices. IDEIA (2004) has advocated for an instruction based strategy for students who are receiving special education. Delayed Acquisition of Vocabulary Knowledge Vocabulary is very important to comprehension reading. The greater the reader’s vocabulary, the easier it makes sense for him to understand the meaning of a given text (Luckner et al, 2005/2006). A research by Lekberg& Spencer (2001) has shown that deaf students often experience delays in building their vocabulary knowledge, they also have smaller lexicons, slowly acquire new words and they have a range of word context which affect their learning of new terms. This means that a vicious circle is created where it can be observed that limited vocabularies often affect reading comprehension and these poor reading strategies limit the skills of the students to acquire enough knowledge from given contexts (deVilliers & Pomerantz, 1992). Words that are acquired from texts are absorbed into the receptive vocabulary of the reader. Printed words are not often understood when some of the words do not exist in the vocabulary of the reader “As a result, it is often noted in the literature that reading comprehension is impeded if individuals do not know 90%–95% of the total words in the text" (Luckner& Cooke, 2010). Due to loss of hearing, deaf children often encounter difficulties in acquiring English vocabulary through the same method of learning that is used by hearing children. Since they cannot hear conversations, deaf children often encounter problems in the development of their English at the appropriate age level. Deaf children also have problems that are related to multiple meanings of words and they have to rely on local context to determine the appropriate meaning of a given word (Marschark, Lang, &Albertini, 2002). Some studies have outlined limited English vocabulary and reading comprehension scores in children who are deaf compared to hearing ones (Singleto, Morhan, DiGello, Wiles, & Rivers, 2004). According to different studies, early vocabulary acquisition in schools helps the children to improve their comprehension skills at a later age in life. Tabors, Snow, and Dickinson (2001) state that receptive vocabulary knowledge in young children was predictive of their comprehension reading skills in the fourth and seventh grades. Cunningham and Stanovich (1997) also suggest that receptive vocabulary in first grade has a strong correlation reading comprehension especially in the eleventh grade. If the reader has a larger vocabulary, it is easier for him to make sense from different texts. Signing DHH children, there are also relationships between concepts and written words which can be very complex (Mayer&Wells, 1996). The way children see vocabulary meaning from words may differ from the way they can interpret meaning in American Sign Language (ASL), as well as word usage in communicating with their peers. For instance, in case of the vocabulary being “leviathan” the sign word would be “big.” This relationship is also influenced by verbal input which includes facial expressions as well as locations in order to generate meaning since some of the meanings of signs are shared among people living in a certain area. In most cases, it can be seen that sign language users often use language that is not exactly the same with language that is found in print vocabulary. Spoken language is not congruent in written language and this has an effect on vocabulary development among deaf children There are mainly three primary communication strategies that are often used among deaf children when they are being taught different aspects about language development. The bilingual as well as bicultural approach to teaching is a philosophy that puts emphasis on elements related to both hearing and deaf cultures since these are incorporated in classroom. Some programs are developed on the basis of English as a second language. The total communication approach and the oral approach to communication are prioritized in teaching people with hearing problems. The total communication approach mainly uses spoken language as well as signs. This approach also encompasses elements such as sign language, finger spelling, writing, gestures, lip reading, amplification, gestures as well as images (Gravel & O’Gara, 2003). On the other hand, the oral approach uses spoken language which puts emphasis on auditory training and development. This also includes articulation ability as well as lip-reading (Jacobs, 1989). Read More