Coaching: A Reflection on Experience - Research Paper Example

Coaching: A reflection on experience Theories on learning and behaviour help to frame the experience of coaching so that the potential that is lockedwithin others can be maximized. Coaching is introduced as the skills to “explain it and supplement this with effective demonstration” (Miles and Hyde 2004, p. 43). This will move into a second phase in which “Improved performance is then about analysing these differences and identifying appropriate interventions to correct the errors and help the participants refine their skills (Miles and Hyde 2004, p. 43). Learning Theories The three main theories that will frame the discussion made in this reflection are that of social learning, constructivist and behaviourist theories. In discussing life coaching, which is a collaborative experience in which coaching is experienced towards maximizing potentials, is that coaching is experienced as “an on-going relationship which focusses on clients taking action toward the realization of their vision, goals and desires” which is developed through the theories that frame learning (Dunbar, 2009, p. 8). Sports coaching skills include the same skills through which developing a relationship with an athlete becomes framed by these theories while focusing on developing skills that can be used within the efforts for competition. Social learning theory is defined by the idea that people learn through observation and imitation of the behaviours of others. In this process, the person being imitated is the model and the process of learning becomes defined by the idea of modelling that behaviour (Newman and Newman 2012, p. 41). Woollard (2010, p. 51) quotes Bandura from 1977 as saying “Most human behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action”. There are a number of different concepts that are associated with social learning theory. Effective modelling comes from attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. In other words, the way to create modelling is through getting the attention of the intended recipient of the knowledge, creating retention of the knowledge, providing for reproduction of the actions associated with the knowledge, and providing for motivation that will encourage the repetition of that modelled behaviour. There are four basic aspects of attention, which is the first approach towards observation. These aspects are as follows: Sensual distinctiveness: the impact is determined by how much the stimulus impacts upon the attention of the learner considering the physical senses of sight, hearing, touch, pain, smell, orientation, balance, position, and taste; Affective distinctiveness: the impact is determined by how much he stimulus impacts upon the learner considering the cognitive senses of fear, anxiety, pleasure, satisfaction, hatred, and love; Prevalence: the impact is determined by the frequency and duration of the stimulus, response episodes, and; Functional value of the experience: how much relevance there is to the individual concerned (Woollard 2010, p. 54). The Processes of Modelling (Woollard 2010, p. 54) Motivation is created through reward and in order for modelling to be encouraged, positive reward will encourage repetition of behaviours that have been modelled, while negative consequences will discourage modelling (Cherry 2011). The basic concept behind behavioural learning theory is that when a specific stimulus is manipulated an intended response will be the result. Operant conditioning is used as a method of teaching how to create results through behaviour. The Skinner Box experiment is an example of this kind of behavioural reinforcement. In this experiment B.F. Skinner put a box with a lever inside of it with the lever releasing pellets of food. A rat was placed in the environment and learned that the result of pressing the bar was the reward of pellets of food (Snowman, McCown, and Biehler 2012). Reinforcement is the drive behind this kind of learning. Reinforcement is defined by either positive or negative. Positive is referred to not for its pleasant result, but for the fact that something is added when the stimulus is triggered. As an example, the food pellets are positive not because they are desired, but because they are added when the bar is pushed. Negative reinforcement, while often associated with punishment, is based on the idea of removing something when triggered. Negative reinforcement can be seen as a child will pick up their clothing in order to stop their parents from nagging them to do so (Snowman, McCown, and Biehler 2012). Constructivist learning theory is based upon the idea that the learner will bring elements of experience and knowledge into the classroom. In this framework, the learner is seen as someone who is not a passive participant in the process. Information is not absorbed out of context, but is relevant to new information in relationship with what is already known. Through learning new concepts, the information that is known is stimulated and the new knowledge is put into perspective with what was previously understood (Lambert 2002). Lev Vygotsky did research into the idea of constructivist learning theory and determined that “human inquiry is imbedded within culture, which is embedded within social history” (Pass 2004, p. 103). Vygotsky suggested that research becomes a part of personal and academic understandings as framed through the perspective of cultural adaptation that frames the information that is found from the inquiry. Much of the information that is created about a sport is the information that will develop within the culture of that sport. As an example, a football team will have a culture through which they develop their perspective on the sport. Developing new skills through a sport will require acquisition of the cultural skills that accompany that sport, so the constructivist theory does not have as much weight as the behavioural or social learning theories have in relationship to coaching a new skill to learners. Although outside influences will come to bear, it is the job of any team building coach to re-program those cultural perspectives until the individual becomes a part of the team. In discussing the coaching sessions that were done in relationship to this assignment, the whole procedure was observed and recorded in order to understand the relationship between learning and coaching, and how this experience expressed that relationship. Reflection Reflection can be classified into four different methods: face to face, focus groups, diary/journal, and guided reflection (1st4sport 2010, p. 65). The benefits of face to face reflection are that it allows for immediate feedback through which reflection can gain context. Focus groups allow for information to be collected through a collaborative effort of discussion that informs on the topic that is being reflected upon. A diary/journal can be very helpful in the second model related by Reynolds and Vince (2004) in order to assess events and re-evaluate as events progress or change. Guided reflection provides for a structured form of reflection in which the individual who is reflecting on an experience is relating all that they wish to include, but some form of structure is providing guidance on the direction of the reflections that are being related (Stringer 2007). In order to frame the way in which reflection occurs, using Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle from 1988 might provide a resource through which to develop an effective reflection. This type of structure has a high level of value in providing a framework for reflective practices. (James Cook University 2011) When using a model, such as the one shown here, it is possible that it might need to be tailored to the individual need for the reflective practice. The Coaching Session The coaching that I decided to do was for a class on kicking a football properly. A 30 minute session was performed in which there was a group of seven children who aged in the 11 to 14 year old range. In order to teach them properly, the class was taught for fifteen minutes after which time the class used the simple technique that was taught in order to practice. The basic skills taught were as follows: pick out a target, look back at the ball, plant the non-kicking foot alongside of the ball, make contact with the instep not the toes, kick the middle of the ball and follow through (Bach, Heller, and National Alliance for Youth Sports 2007). Proper kicking technique in football (Bach, Heller, and National Alliance for Youth Sports 2007, p. 158). Justification of Coaching Session Before the class was being held a complete check of the area was made to ensure that standards of safety were in place and that none of the equipment that was being used was below standards of expected performance. As I am trained in first aid and CRB I felt that I could adequately help anyone who might need aid during the training. I made sure that supervision of grounds staff were near should there be any other problems that might involve injury or risk to wellbeing. The participants were asked to arrive then minutes before the session so adequately warm up as described in Appendix two could take place. In balance, a ten minute cool down was conducted after the session. According to Wymer (2005) warming provides both a physical and a mental advantage to play. The physical benefits are seen as the body is warmed up so that the muscles are ready for action. The mental advantage is that the participant creates a mind-set towards the game that will be played. The type of warm-up that was used was first a series of stretches for the legs, then a set of dynamic warm-up exercises to get the body ready for action. Wymer (2005) states that warm-ups that are designed to be dynamic rather than static have a better effect on the muscles in preparing for exercise. As well, a cool down of a light run will provide for the muscles to begin to relax from the stress of play. The session was begun after the warm-ups with a description and demonstration of the skill I wanted to teach to them. According to Stratton (2004) the IKEA strategy to teaching is one that allows for the coach to impart information to players through a variety of thinking. IKEA stands for I: information, K: knowledge, E: expertise, and A: application (Stratton 2004). The players were given information on the activity, the knowledge of the steps through which to accomplish the goal, the expertise of someone who understood the procedure, and then finally the opportunity to create an application of what had been learned. Reflection of the Coaching Session The coaching session took place through my giving auditory and visual information to the students in order to inform them of the steps they needed to take to accomplish the goals they were attempting to achieve. The demonstration went smoothly as I kicked the ball and hit its target, showing how to use the leg to its best advantage. According to Hargreaves and Bate (2010) coaching is something that is done after observation, so it was necessary to understand that this portion of the work was teaching. During this teaching portion, the theory of social learning seemed to be the most relevant to how the participants were acquiring this new skill. The session portion was about demonstrating the appropriate methods of creating the proper kick as the angle of the leg, the way in which it was used, and how the follow through was important to the aim of the kick were all relayed to the students. As related by Woollard (2010), the four aspects of learning had to be addressed in order to create an effective experience. The first aspect was to get their attention. This was accomplished through the warm-up exercises which prepared them for the experience and a whistle which I used to call their attention to what was being taught. Observation became key at this point as the individual participants were observed for their use of the skills that had been given to them. According to Hargreaves and Bate (2010), this would be the point at which true coaching would begin. Through observing their use of the information, adjustments to form and performance could be made through remarking on changes that could be made towards creating higher levels of achievement in practicing this skill. According to Miles and Hyde (2004, p. 49) “Coaching is about working with people to try and help them improve”. Coaching can be done through a great many styles. For children it is recommended that an autocratic style be used. This means that all the decisions are made by the coach, leading the participants forward through learning and improving the skills (Robinson 2010). This provides for control through the experience of coaching, placing the focus on the drive of the coach through his or her players. The last portion of the learning dynamic through social learning theory is motivation which was encouraged through the competition. This was very successful as the children were motivated to outperform one another through hitting the target. Analysis of the Coaching Session The process of the coaching session was developed through the S.M.A.R.T. method of creating coaching goals. This stands for Specific, Measurable, Agreed, Realistic and Time-Phased goals through which the task is approached (Miles and Hyde 2004, p. 36). The Specific task was that of learning to aim the ball. This was accomplished through a demonstration, followed by a practice. The Measurable aspect was whether or not the target of the aim could be reached. The Agreed upon portion of the coaching session was accomplished through creating motivation through encouragement for the participants to learn the skill. The Realistic goals were to apply basic principles to a teaching session, after which the skill would be assessed and adjusted through appropriate coaching skills. Finally, the time frame through which we were to work on the skill was finite and the expected result was an improvement in kicking skills. Grouping was used at a minimal capacity as it was already a small group and the repetition of kicking had them moving in a linear style of action. The communication style used was the autocratic communication style. This style is high directive, low relationship based communications as the goals for this session were set to be directions with a group of children that were there for one session. Should this have been a part of a long term coaching situation, it is likely that it would have been more of a consultative style as I would want a high task oriented, high relationship form of communication between myself and the participants (Pedersen, Miloch, and Laucella 2007). The participants were eager to learn the task, took criticisms well, and at the end, responded to the question “did you learn anything” positively. Overall the session was successful in that repeating the performance of a kick was accomplished by every participant. Future sessions could be improved by a more organized set of drills that can be performed more rapidly as the pace seemed to drag a bit. The way in which the communication was given and received seemed to be successful as social learning theory concepts were used to create the learning experience. Conclusion The three learning theories through which teaching can be most successfully accomplished are constructivist, behavioural, and social learning theories. The learning theory used for the purposes of this assignment was social learning theory as the concepts were laid out through attention, retention, demonstration, and motivation. The assignment was based upon teaching children to effectively aim as they kicked a football. Positive results as the children learned to kick the ball can only be considered truly valuable if that knowledge is retained. For future coaching experiences, multiple sessions would allow for that type of information to be more readily available. In order to most effectively utilize these methods, this type of instruction should be followed by the gathering of information on how the information was retained. Feedback was good from all the members who participated and the challenge at the end of trying to hit the target excited them into even more enthusiasm. Bibliography 1st4sport (2010) Types of reflective practice. P65 Bach, G., Heller, J., & National Alliance for Youth Sports. (2007). Coaching junior football teams for dummies. Chichester, West Sussex: John Wiley. Cherry, K., (2011). Social Learning Theory: An Overview of Banduras Social Learning Theory. [Online] Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/de vvelopmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.htm [Accessed: 23/1/12] Davey, G. (2011). Introduction to applied psychology. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Dunbar, A. (2009). Essential life coaching skills. East Sussex: Taylor and Francis, Inc. Engler, B. (2008). Personality theories: An introduction. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Hargreaves, A., & Bate, R. (2010). Skills and strategies for coaching soccer. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. James Cook University (Australia) (28 September 2011). J.C.U. workplace educators resource package. [Online] Retrieved from http://www.jcu.edu.au/w iledpack/modules/fsl/JCU_090342.html Lambert, L. (2002). The constructivist leader. New York: Teachers College Press. Miles, A. & Hyde, L. (2004). Coaching practice. Leeds [England: Published] on behalf of Sports Coach UK by Coachwise Business Solutions. Newman, B. M., & Newman, P. R. (2012). Development through life: A psychosocial approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Pass, S. (2004). Parallel paths to constructivism: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Greenwich, Conn: Information Age Pub. Pedersen, P. M., Miloch, K. S., & Laucella, P. C. (2007). Strategic sport communication. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Reynolds, M., & Vince, R. (2004). Organizing reflection. Burlington, Verm: Ashgate. Robinson, P. (2010) Foundations of sports coaching. Oxon: Routledge Snowman, J., McCown, R. R., & Biehler, R. F. (2012). Psychology applied to teaching. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Stratton, G. (2004). Youth soccer: From science to performance. London: Francis and Taylor, Inc. Stringer, E. T. (2007). Action research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Woollard, J. (2010). Psychology for the classroom: Behaviourism. East Sussex: Taylor and Francis, Inc. Wymer, P. (2005). Coaching soccer tactics. Sheffield: Phil Wymer. Appendix A (Session plan layout based on template, Robinson, 2010) Coaching session – Kicking the Football Session skill – Proper Kicking Date – 10/1/12 Number of participants – 7 Duration of session – 30 minutes (exl warm up and cool down) Resources for session – field, cone drill, and net target Aims of session – Develop the skill of kicking Objective of session – To learn to aim the ball as it is kicked Warm up – 10 minutes Stretching the upper and lower legs with a period of dynamic warm up exercises (see appendix B). Cool Down – 5 minutes Light jog around the field Intro/Demo of the session – 5 minutes Discuss with the children if there are any limitations through health problems that I should be aware of in the process. Discuss the steps of the kick, and then demonstrate the kick. Coaching points:- Visualize the target- First look up to the target, then back down to the ball Plant- plant the non-kicking foot alongside of the ball Kick - make contact with the instep not the toes; kick the middle of the ball Follow through- let leg follow through towards the target (Bach, Heller, and National Alliance for Youth Sports 2007). Activity/Skill – 7.5 minutes This skill is practiced as they kick the ball back and forth to each other, running and catching the ball as they aim their kicks. Enough space was left between them to minimize getting hit with a high velocity kicked ball. Progressions – 7.5 minutes Children were then put in front of a net with the intention of getting the ball into the targeted area. Games/fun – 7.5 minutes A competition was created in which the most number of balls into the net would win. Recap – 2.5 minutes A few minutes were spent going over what was learned and answering any questions, of which there were none. Cool down Children were sent to run around the field for ten minutes. Appendix B: Warm Up Exercises Stretching Quadriceps Stretch: The ankle is grasped behind the body and pulled gently to stretch the quadriceps. Calf Stretch: Toes were balanced on the end of a weight, the body then rising up slowly on the tip toes, then back down so that the heel touched the ground Dynamic Warm ups Jumping from one foot to the other over a line to warm up the body Jumping Jacks for a brief stint High knees where the knees are brought up to the chest from a standing position in alternate steps in place One course through the cones with the ball dribbled between their feet. Read More