Modernization and Education in Egypt - Research Paper Example

Modernization and Education in Egypt Introduction Changes within society have created an alteration in what resources and advancements are available at a certain period of time. In Egypt, specific changes began after 1800, specifically because of progression made with education in the area. The reign of Muhammad Ali and the leadership which was taken during this time was able to directly transform the way in which education was approached. The result was progression and growth of education throughout Egypt which has changed the area into one which is modern in nature and which continues to progress forward because of the advancements which have been made. The growth of education during the time of Muhammad Ali not only has changed the focus within Egypt but also has altered the political, social and religious realms within Egypt, specifically because of the political support toward education. Political Pressures and Demands for Education The alterations that began with Muhammad Ali were not only based on the political rulership of this time frame but also were created because of economic and societal impacts which led up to the demands within educational realms. Through the 1700s, there was a growth in exchange between Egypt and Europe, specifically with areas such as France, Spain and Britain offering exchange of goods. The Ottoman rule offered free trade, stability and victory over different powers and ruling entities. This allowed the country to grow and prosper under rules of exchange and building wealth and prosperity. Egypt became known for trade with coffee and exchanges with merchandise. However, Ottoman authorities in the mid 1700s altered this exchange by stopping the import and export between both countries first by trading too much coffee and other goods then later declining the amount which could be exported because of a lack of goods. The same problem with decline occurred with the textiles, specifically because the Ottoman Empire didn’t provide the same quality of cloth and with rulings from France such as the Marseille chamber of commerce, which limited the number of imports and exports from Egypt. This was specifically because France was able to produce similar types of cloth to enhance their economy without the exchange. These several areas of decline with merchants then led to an economic downfall through the 1700s in Egypt (Marsot, 1984). One component that led to the need for education was because of the economic boundaries that were created in the 1700s and the need to have alternative crafts to sustain the social order in Egypt. The lack of trade with Europe and Egypt was followed with alterations in the internal structure which created more complexities within Egypt. This began with relations between different types of individuals that would increase the economy both with internal and external trade. The political and economic system both altered at the same time as merchants began to become remote from other relationships. For instance, from the 1670s to the 1760s, janissaries and artisans would exchange goods and build relationships. However, the political rulings changed this and caused the janissaries to work only locally and to become Egyptianized, as opposed to offering international trade. This ordering led to higher taxation of artisans, lack of influence for export and pressures that were placed on artisans and those in lower society of Egypt. Taxes were then raised, which caused uprisings and lower merchant activities, specifically because of the resources which were taken from those that were in the system. The Mamluck rulers were known to create this specific distinction by changing capabilities in the economy and closing off the trade and exports that were driving the economy and society forward (Marsot, 1984). The driving force of the economy and of lifestyle through the 1700s was based on the imports and exports which were associated with the economy and the association that individuals had with these rules. Taxes increased and the ability to export decreased which led to alterations in power began to rise with pressures for change. The desire was to through the Mamluck rulers out of power to regain the balance in the economy and to find new and alternative means to grow and prosper during this time frame. The result was a decline in the Ottoman officials, rule of the Mamlucks and a lack of expansion that had taken place before through the Ottoman Rule. By the 1780s, the government had lost control of the militia that was used and had lost regard through the artisans, specifically because of high taxes and the inability to have the same trade as before. Russians and Albanian troops were forced into Egypt and took over the political forces while destabilizing the economy. The Mamlucks were driven out of force after attacking the French Embassy and not having a strong enough militia to conquer the area. Cairo then designated Muhammad Ali as the governor of the Ottoman Empire in 1801 while allowing him to seize the power of Egypt and out of the hands of both the Mamlucks and Albanians from the lost war (Daly, Petry, 1998). This moved into a turning point, specifically because the economy had fallen and boundaries for international trade were cut off. Muhammad Ali then had to restore Egypt by creating new ideologies of labor specifically by using the medium of education for the economy. Changes in Education through Muhammad Ali The rise of Muhammad Ali into power was one that allowed Egypt to move into contemporary terms and to restart the economy and development within the community. The destruction of the Ottoman Empire and the Mamlucks gave Muhammad Ali flexibility in establishing a nation and in altering the different available resources. The focus which was brought into the power and reign of Muhammad Ali began with the concept of taking out the older structures that were formed, specifically from the period of the Mamlucks, and to offer contemporary concepts that could be a part of Egypt. The strategy which was used offered exchanges with Europe, changes in the economy and alterations in the government rule for those that were within the community. The first change which was made through Muhammad Ali was the reconstruction of the economy and trades. The trade centers which were known before in Egypt were re-opened with taxes being lowered for artisans. However, the alterations in supply and demand with Europe and other nations still faltered. Handcrafts and artisan positions also began to decline because of the alterations in demand in the economy as well as the incorporation of trade centers at a different level. At the same time, other regions of the world were beginning to tap into the technologies and pre-industrialization that was a part of history. This caused Egypt to force change that was able to compete with Europe and other global arenas, specifically in terms of developing trades and industries which were in demand and which could provide specific insight into the Middle East. Egypt was forced to move through several transitions to restructure the economy, trades and the available resources which were a part of the area. This transition led to the demand for education, specifically so new trades and technologies could become an established component of Egypt (Issawi, 2009). The changes in demand and from the destruction of the economy in the 1700s began to create a restructure that Muhammad Ali used, specifically by beginning with individual households and structures. The concept of ownership, for instance, moved outside of the communal concept used in the past and instead moved into isolated components where individuals were required to claim ownership over one piece of land. The taxes, economic development and manufacturing were further divided from a communal effort into one which began to be based on isolation and individual responsibility. These different economic structures and demands created a change in the economy, specifically because there were different demands for exports and imports and allowed individuals to recover financially. Along with this restructuring was also a demand in new crafts and the ability for individuals to be responsible for changes with their trade and craft. The branches of the economy were then able to become diversified through the 1800s with the types of demands that were a part of the community (Issawi, 1967). It was Muhammad Ali’s focus on diversity in Egypt that led many to finding new crafts and trying to offer innovation into society, specifically to assist with national growth that promoted Egypt as a rising nation. The overall concepts which were associated when Muhammad Ali began to restructure Egypt were the move into modernization within the land. The first step to this was to change the social exchange that was used. As the values within society could change through the break in economic structure and expectations, individuals and families would have the ability to have more communication and diversification for technology. This was specifically based on the associations with modern Europe and America. To do this effectively, a break down and rebuilding of traditional norms, structures and values were required. Muhammad Ali not only approached this by changing lifestyle and land structures, but also approached introducing new technologies and associations with education. The value that was created through the value of education then provided a stronger sense of growth within society while creating a new sense of value over intellect and the ability to offer more to society outside of artisan and crafts, and instead through new technologies that could compete with the Western world (Cuno, 1980). Creating New Educational Values in Society The restructuring of different crafts and trades to compete with Western nations also led to finding values in other arenas. Several outside influences and changes within the internal structure allowed Egypt to continue to expand and to offer higher education for those that were within the arena. The main objective was to offer technologically sound trades as well as innovations that would allow the community and the economy to continue to function easily. This began with social change that required education, specifically by understanding the value that was a part of the Egyptian society. By dividing the land, creating modern attempts of understanding within society and restructuring the experience that was needed, social transformations were able to occur. The restructuring was based on the past failures of trade, processes of westernization and the social transformations that were within modern Egypt. The educational values were divided into macro and micro levels of influence in society, specifically which led to different levels of development within society (Sonbol, 1991). The influence that was created socially was the idea of modernization and having cosmopolitan arenas that offered higher education. This was furthered with the idea of centralization, which initiated the concept of the modern city. The modernization and centralization provided higher education, more skills and the ability for individuals to achieve more within society. It furthered this with the growing belief in society that education would allow one to move outside of the traditional concepts based on communal living while offering more competition with other arenas. Those who were nationalist in nature and wanted to have a sense that Egypt was recovering from the past empire were influenced by the announcement of education as a main path for modernization and centralization. More important, the younger generations began to grow with the belief that economic and social stigma would be affected by the ability to have higher education and to compete differently than past generations. These several beliefs which were given as components of society began to alter the crafts, educational levels and the enhancement of education from 1800 (Dunne, 1989). The medical profession was one of the leading changes and examples of modernization that transformed education in Egypt from 1800 – 1922. The influences in the medical profession were one of the first that began to change the social values and beliefs under Muhammad Ali. Parts of the medical field were transformed through the Western ideologies of Egypt, specifically which included formal training through institutions. Egypt began to copy this structure as opposed to basic knowledge that was used to cure disease and other ailments. In the past, the family inherited the concepts about health. If the ailment was not as curable, then an attar, or herbalist, would provide extra remedies. Spiritual healers were also known within the society to assist with difficult diseases and ailments. Even though these individuals were valued throughout the 19th century, there were other aspects of society that began to introduce new ideologies. Ismail, Ali Pasha Mubarak created the first Western type of institution for medical processes to train individuals in the medical profession. By the 1860s, individuals were trained into modern medicines and surgeries as a second component of society. As families saw the benefits of this educational balance, there was the ability to offer more services which appeared more effective than the traditional concepts related to medicine. The result was a societal trend which began to support the value of formal and institutional education to add in an impact to society. The more that this was supported through the social stigma of having modern medicine, the more that educational realms began to grow with the enhancement of modern doctors and medicine which could offer more than traditional methods of healing (Sonbol, 1991). The medical field was one of several arenas that began to make the transfer from traditional knowledge to formal education, specifically to add into the impact on society. As the impact of the first institutions and the Westernized methods of technology became noted, was the desire to have more education, specifically to diversify the amount of trade available throughout Egypt and the capabilities that were offered within society. The examples of education were furthered with Muhammad’s modernization policy, which was specifically based on rebuilding Egypt through the educational systems available to compete with Western entities. As modernization became a main stigma, many that lived in urban settings began to move to cosmopolitan areas, such as Cairo. The movement, specifically because of the push toward modernization, created a change in the demands of the area. The skill sets and crafts required also demanded further education, such as the medical profession, to create changes within society. Other institutions then followed the medical institutes, all which were based on growing with academic, technological and skilled themes within Egypt. Individuals living in both urban and city areas in Egypt began to believe that modernization was based around having education and enhancing life by providing innovation and technology. The movement in society then began to rely on education first so one could build a trade or craft that could be interchanged with the Western countries (Chaichian, 2009). As the institutes began to develop, political entities began to support specific components of higher education to further society. The political entities directly influenced the stigma in society and the trends which were created and accepted through society. The Western influences and the need to offer modernization in the form of institutes began to be related to not only the need to have education. Many in society began to attribute education as a part of national pride, specifically by relating this to the political and social spheres that made a statement over the modernization and progression in Egypt. “In their transformations into ‘modern nation states,’ Egypt, Turkey and Lebanon adapted key aspect of Western, often secular, traits into their traditional education systems; the resulting systems which reflected the differences in the political, social and national developments of each state” (Ashkenazi, 2009). The rise of educational institutes then continued to grow as a trend, specifically because of the association with modernization and the popularity of nationalism. As society transitioned into modern educational systems that were mirrored from Western society, there was an easier ability to create a more competitive realm that was based on the ideology and identity of Egypt as a nation. The modernization policy that Muhammad Ali put into effect was then able to lead into stigmas associated with the importance of modern education in Egypt (Ashkenazi, 2009). Another component with social trends that began to affect the educational system was based on the pride associated with symbolic capital. Symbolic capital is known as an entity which produces resources, assets or additions into society which are known to offer more recognition. Institutions were known as symbolic capital, specifically because it was associated with the welfare of the state and the movement from a third world country and to a developed country. The popularization of modern ideologies and the transfer into competing and idolizing Western states also led into the symbolic capital of creating institutions. Those in society were then able to create an identity of Egypt that was based on the structure of education and the rising popularity of diversity in trades. The more individuals could move through higher institutions and compete with Western states, the easier it became to compete. More important, a national social status began to rise with the number of institutions which were associated with symbolic capital. Individuals began to create a social relationship that took pride in the educational institutions and the families which were a part of the capital. The concept related to the growth of social economy, which was attributed directly to nationalist pride and the number of individuals that were interested in the growth of economics through contemporary education (Haeri, et al, 1997). Political Affiliations with Education The social stigma which was created around modernization and the ability to have higher education was furthered with the moves and policies which Muhammad Ali took in transformation of Egypt. The politics of the time relate directly to the dependency theory. This states that Egypt is an example of a nation who became dependent on other nations for resources and competition. The different areas of relevance which were a part of the educational system were not innovations of Egypt, but instead were used as a sense of dependency on Western nations for trade and development. The institutes that were created were based specifically on dependency to Western technologies and beliefs as well as ideologies that rejected the traditional lifestyle and society and instead was focused on information which was based on Western beliefs. The political realm pushed the ideas of modernization based on the dependency of Western states, which stated that Egypt was an underdeveloped nation. To compete with this, Egypt began to work toward furthering education and popularlizing institutions, specifically for increased political affiliations with the West. This particular theory was also noted in the past with the exports and trade that had led the economy of Egypt. Continuing with this same political affiliation for trade is what pushed Muhammad Ali and politicians following in his reign to focus specifically on education (Clawson, 1978). The encouragement of education because of the dependencies on outside nations also led Egypt into construction of political enhancement and policies. Muhammad Ali was known for creating the social stigma surrounding Egypt in terms of education as a sense of modernization. To do this, Muhammad Ali also focused on the aspects of increasing economic, political and social exchange. The enhancement of education through policies and legal reform was known to provide more development economically and for the political realm. Diplomatic and economic policies were then created to enhance the political relations between countries. This was furthered by using the educational development as a way of opening Egypt in terms of legalities, policies and political affiliations. As this was done, Egypt was able to provide more resources to the West and was able to stabilize the economic and political realms of the region. More important, there was the ability to negotiate peace in terms of the Western regions, specifically which were in conflict from the past. The education and resources which were created from higher institutions were then able to provide internal and external benefits to the political realm while allowing Egypt to move from a developing country into one which was considered Western and civilized (Salacuse, 1980). Muhammad Ali used several types of influences to ensure that modernization and the educational trends continued to be enhanced. To further change the economy, banks and other areas of power began to rise. Muhammad Ali used these structures of modernization to enhance education by offering support to those who wanted to find a new trade or skill through an institution. Scholarships were provided through the government, especially between 1801 – 1839, specifically for those who were interested in attending universities and working into a modern lifestyle. Medicine, law, engineering, teaching and technology were the five main subjects taught. To close this gap, Mohammed Ali brought scientists and experts from the West to teach in the universities. To grow with specific interest in the community, Muhammad Ali began to offer scholarships to students interested in these professions. The individuals who graduated in the first class of 1811 were immediately offered jobs in the government to secure the educational transformation that was occurring during this time. This was furthered with scholarships offered for both primary and secondary schools as well as pushed national requirements for every child to receive an education. The secondary schools were considered secular and were pushed as a requirement among those in Egypt. At the same time, Mohammed Ali announced that these would be provided for free with stimulation from the government The secular schools then provided a new sense of modernization within the country and among those who were interested in furthering their education (Cochran, 1986). More than any other time in history, Mohammed Ali’s finances for education was more than any time before or after in rule. Another aspect of this was based on the political need to rebuild the structure from the Mamlucks, specifically because of the fall of political power from the militia. The concept of education then combined with rebuilding military forces and enhancing the internal structure of the government. Institutions began to be used to support the army and to create better aspects of those which were a part of the military, which offered a sense of modernization to both the political realm and to society. “Besides insuring that the training and education of the new recruits were to be conducted with minimum disruption, this process of internment had other purposes. One was an attempt to reduce the possibility of conflict with the civilian population, especially those residing in urban centers” (Fahmy, 1997). The political affiliation with education was one which then devised the belief that training and education of recruits would provide the best assistance to political and social realms. The modern militia was expected to be more contained, have fewer associations with violence and to have higher skill levels which pertained to fighting wars at an international level and without as many problems. Social relations supported this, specifically because of the past losses of the Mamlucks. The political realm also benefited from the idea of offering enhanced education, specifically because it offered a stronger military force for Egypt. Mohammed Ali used the educational fields to enhance the army and to promote the growth of education not only among militia, but also for younger generations to prepare for the future and governmental rule (Fahmy, 1997). Changing Economic Trends with Education The growing trends with education were not only associated with political and social needs but also were directly linked to economic changes. Egypt had come out of a rich past that required dependency on trade and economic exchange with Western nations. This had stabilized the economy through the Ottoman Empire. When this trend was closed, the result was a lack of stability within the economy, specifically which resulted in the fall of the empire. When Muhammad Ali moved into a specific position, the economic trends began to alter. However, many also related to the past of trade, specifically which depended on the export system for stability. The past economic trends as well as the desire to move into stability within the economy then led to several supporting the idea of education to exchange with Western states and to provide a different set of resources and technology which were not within the Western realm. The desire for economic stability that was a part of Egypt’s history became one of the driving forces associated with the enhancement of education (Daly, Petry, 1998). The concept of modern industry was another driving force which led the higher education and institutions to become a main component of Egypt. The modern industry was led by technology and began in areas such as the UK and France after 1789. The industrial revolution and the growing demand for machinery and adaptations of technology were noted as the driving forces in Western nations. In 1798, France furthered the developments with an invasion on Egypt, specifically for economic resources. The French then began to establish new technologies in urban areas, specifically to move further faster with crops and other components. The cotton fields were the most popular example, specifically as France was able to increase production through new technology with cotton fields. This moved several Egyptians out of traditional labor practices and forced new crafts into play. As wool mills and cotton plants became famous in Egypt, traditional farmers and laborers were forced to find another means for care. As the new constructions and implementation occurred with invasions and pacts in the economy between the Western economies and Egypt, those in the economy were forced to learn about new technologies and construction to remain competitive as a national entity (Cameron, 1998). The economic changes that were exposed from the Western world enhanced and changed the economy not only because of forced production but also from the support of Muhammad Ali. The economy was forced to change into ideas of modernization because of the supported ideologies of progression that Mohammed Ali initiated. “Mohammad Ali and his successors Said (1845 – 1863) and Ismail (1863 – 1879) favored the development of commerce and industry as well. Mohammed Ali, in fact, virtually monopolized in his own hands the whole trade of the country, and by diverting the profits of this monopoly into purchases of expensive machinery and equipment and employing foreign technicians, provided an early example of an attempt at ‘forced draft’ industrialization” (Cameron, 1998). The support of Mohammed Ali for industrialization, foreign entities and ways to enhance the economy through technology then created an alteration in the viewpoint of education. As society began to note the changes in technology through the monopoly that was created, was also a push to remain competitive with the Western countries and to offer new contributions through the Egyptian economy. The material wealth that was introduced into Egypt through this time frame enhanced the economy and forced a movement into the ideology of modernization as an expected component of living (Cameron, 1998). As increases in technology were added into the main lifestyle and created a sense of modernization, was also an alteration in the economy which became competitive with Western countries. For instance, the tobacco market was one which was a part of Egyptian society and was grown and expanded through the introduction of technology and industrialized machines. Once this was completed, Egypt was required to continue to offer enhancements and changes within the economy to continue to compete with the amount of production that was a part of society. The rise in demands for the economy led to a specific set of changes that was based on the development of more technology and ways of offering services and products within the economy, specifically to remain competitive with the Western nations. The demand for tobacco was also able to increase, not only because of new technologies, but also with creation of new supplies, such as cigarettes in Western nations. As this developed, education became an expected part of the culture and economy because of the need to offer innovation and to enhance the society through new developments which could be sold with a sense of dependency to foreign nations (Nassar, 2003). Philosophies of Modernization and Education The political, economic and social agendas which were a part of the demands for education in the time frame of Mohammed Ali forced a new construction within society, as well as development that led to new increases and changes in society. Educational ministries and laws continued to increase from the first institutions, specifically because of the change in demands to have more education and resources available through intellect. The growth of education in Egypt after 1800 then continued to alter the society into a modern state, specifically because of the pressures and provisions which enhanced the need to have education. The reform was furthered with the demands and developments that became a requirement for education, as opposed to the trade and artisan components that were developed in the past centuries in terms of a fair economy. The creation of modern Egypt was then able to began, specifically because of the exchanges with Westernized ideologies as well as movements into new policies, applications of education and societal alterations in how education could enhance the livelihoods of those that were in Egypt (Kim, 2006). The making of the modern world in Egypt is based specifically on the several facets that began to accept education as a necessity within the arena, specifically through the monopolies which were created by Mohammed Ali. The ideology which was created was one which believed in modernism as one that was an important part of the livelihoods in Egypt. The ideologies were furthered when the first institutions began to show that modern concepts in medicine, technology and other components were able to provide a different set of economic basis for livelihoods. The social stigma and acceptance that was created led to the acceptance of education as a main staple in life as well as one which could provide economic stability and political growth of Egypt as a nation. The modernization theory relates directly to this, which states that the belief in modernism as one that offers help, as opposed to hindering the society, created a different outlook toward Egypt. This was furthered by seeing the economic changes and the increase in political assistance that occurred under the reign of Mohammed Ali, all which offered an increased in understanding that the modern era of Egypt was made specifically because of the support and enhanced growth in the nation. Conclusion The change into modernization in Egypt was one that noted significant alterations in the 1800s. Before this time frame, the Ottoman Empire led the economy and lifestyles into communal living and export trade with Europe. However, the overthrow of this empire and the rise of power from Mohammed Ali shifted the perspectives and desires of the nation. Specifically, the individuals in the nation became interested in recovering economically and becoming a nationalist structure that was able to provide more options within society. The changes which began to occur were based on modernization and how this was directly linked to education. The modernization was based on the secular components of Western society and were led by innovation, technology and rebuilding into an economy based on industrialization. The policies and support of Mohammed Ali was able to create a difference in the educational systems and allowed an increase in formal institutions for education. The results were changes in the enhancement of education, which were supported at social, political and economic levels through the 1800s and into modern day Egypt. References Ashkenazi, Jennifer. (2009). “Reflections on Educational Transitions in Egypt, Lebanon and Turkey.” International Handbook of Comparative Education (22), (6). Cameron, Rondo. (1998). France and the Economic Development of Europe: 1800 – 1914. New York: Routledge. Chaichian, Mohammad. (2009). “The Effects of World Capitalist Economy on Urbanization in Egypt, 1800-1970.” International Journal of Middle East Studies. (20). Clawson, Patrick. (1978). “Egypt’s Industrialization: A Critique of Dependency Theory.” MERIP Reports (72). Cochran, Judith. (1986). Education in Egypt. Australia: Croom Helm Publishers. Cuno, Kenneth. (1980). “The Origins of Private Ownership of Land in Egypt: A Reappraisal.” International Journal of Middle East Studies (12). Daly, MW. Carl Petry. (1998). The Cambridge History of Egypt: Modern Egypt from 1517 to the end of the Twentieth Century. UK: Cambridge University Press. Fahmy, Khaled. (1997). All the Pasha’s Men: Mehmed Ali, his army and the Making of Modern Egypt. UK: Cambridge University Press. Galt, Russell. (1989). The Effects of Centralization on Education in Modern Egypt. Cairo: American University. Haeri, Niloofar, Jan Bloomaert, John Bowen, James Collins, Madiha Doss. (1997). “The Reproduction of Symbolic Capital: Language, State, and Class in Egypt.” Current Anthropology (38), (5). Issawi, Charles. (1967). “Egypt Since 1800: A Study in Lop-Sided Development.” The Journal of Economic History (21), (1). Issawi, Charles. (2009). “De-industrialization and Re-industrialization in the Middle East since 1800.” International Journal of Middle East Studies (12). Kim, Jong – Seon. (2006). “The Normative Construction of Modern State Systems: Educational Ministries and Laws, 1800 – 2000.” International Perspectives on Education and Society (7). Marsot, Afaf. (1984). Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali. UK: University of Cambridge. Nassar, Heba. (2003). “The Economics of Tobacco in Egypt: A New Analysis of Demand.’ Center for Tobacco Control Research and Education. Salacuse, Jeswald. (1980). “Back to Contract: Implications of Peace and Openness for Egypt’s Legal System.” The American Journal of Comparative Law. (28), (2). Sonbol, Amira El Azhary. (1991). The Creation of a Medical Profession in Egypt: 1800-1922. New York: Syracuse University Press. Read More