Studying the Motivation According to the Gender - Research Proposal Example

Literature Review Matrix Year Motivation Achievement Gender KS2 Children Level In terms of Learning Grolnick, Wendy S., Gurland, Suzanne T., Jacob, Karen F., and Decourcey, Wendy 2001  Girls value reading and instrumental music. Boys value sports.  Decline in intrinsic motivation between fifth to sixth grade among for girls, but not for boys.  Girls have the tendency to undermine intrinsic motivation. They are more likely to behave in ways that will please others.  Boys have significantly higher math and sports ability whilst girls have higher English ability.  There are gender differences in particular domains of motivation and achievement.  Girls are showing more self-regulated learning styles compared to boys. Wigfield, Allan 2000  Girls are more positively motivated than boys.  There is a general decline in motivation in the primary levels. Thus, achievement scores also decreases.  There are gender differences in reading motivation, which directly translates to reading performance.  Perceived competencies in reading is higher for girls than for boys.  Although self-concept is the same for both girls and boys, value of reading is significantly different.  The studies focus on students who are average on their achievement scores. Studies in the past have shown that children with difficulty in reading are generally less motivated. The findings on this study gives a striking insight on students who are average performers.  There are gender differences in overall motivation.  Third grade students who are average achievers in reading appear to be motivated differently according to gender and places different value on reading. Preckel, Franzis, Goetz, Thomas, Pekrun, Reinhard, and Kleine Michael 2008  Motivation for mathematics was compared between gifted and non-gifted students.  Gifted students scored relatively higher than average students in mathematical ability. There were no significant gender differences.  Gender differences in self-concept, interest and motivation in mathematics are larger in gifted than in average-ability students.  Gifted and non-gifted students in sixth grade were measured according to mathematics ability.  Those who scored 95% on the non-verbal reasoning test were considered gifted. Those who scored 1 SD from an IQ of 100 were matched accordingly for the non-gifted group. Kitchenham, Andrew 2002  Students are motivated in different ways and the basis for these motivations maybe rooted in external influences or dispositional traits.  According to the report, girls excel in literacy subjects while boys excel in mathematics and the core sciences.  Gender differences in motivation can be explained through sociological and biological theories.  Among 15-year old Canadians who participated in a study, females were found to be in Level 3 in reading tests while boys were still at Level 2. Reading Today 2008/ 2009  Boys have lower motivation to read and write than their female counterparts.  Boys score significantly lower than girls on the National Assessment of Educational Progress reading and writing assessments.  Gender differences in achievement and scores mean that educators must seek different ways to motivate boys and girls in the classroom.  By fourth grade, the average boy is two years behind the average girls in reading and writing Review of Related Literature Educators and psychologists are continuously looking for direction to increase academic achievement. Research has shown that the “study of motivation provides a rich framework for addressing some of the most pressing issues facing our educational system today” (Graham and Taylor 121). Instead of focusing on how behaviours are developed with regard to achievement motivation, there is a current trend of finding out the “why” behind achievement-related behaviour. Among the variables correlated with motivation, gender appears to yield inconclusive yet insightful results. This chapter will highlight literature related to the study of gender and motivation among students. It will provide support for the significant role that gender plays in the motivation of children in school. Furthermore, it will give justification of the importance of conducting the proposed study. Research on gender differences in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have only provided partial support for significant effects. Using the Children’s Academic Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, Gottried “found no differences in intrinsic motivation in reading, math, social studies, and science in a sample of fourth through seven graders” (qtd. in Grolnick, Gurland, Jacob and Decourcey 153). The same is true for extrinsic motivation as supported by the study of Grolnick et al. using the Relative Autonomy Index. In a related research, Pintrich and Degroot also found “that girls and boys did not differ on their reported intrinsic value for school” (qtd. in Grolnick et al. 153). Still, certain domains on motivation have been reported to be significantly affected by gender. As such, there is still continuing research interest in the role of gender in the motivation of students. There have been studies showing that significant gender differences in motivation exist at specific domains and ages. In a longitudinal study conducted by Wigfield, among students in first to sixth grade, “girls valued reading and instrumental music more than boys,” (qtd. in Grolnick et al. 153) while sports was found more important among boys than girls. A study conducted by Harter and Jackson also revealed that there was a “sharp decline in intrinsic motivation for science and math between fifth and sixth grade for girls but not boys” (qtd. in Grolnick et al. 153). Yee and Eccles believe that this is primarily due to the “socialization messages girls and boys receive about this subject” (qtd. in Grolnick et al. 153). Moreover, a study conducted by Boggaino, Main and Katz demonstrate how girls are more “vulnerable to undermining their intrinsic motivation” (qtd. in Grolnick et al. 153). Boys and girls were assigned to two types of feedback conditions: (i) a high controlling condition where they were told that they “should” and “ought” to perform well; and (ii) low controlling conditions where they were given supportive feedback. Results showed that “girls in the high controlling condition, particularly those who reported extrinsic motivational style prior to the tasks, were most likely to pursue the easier tasks relative to those in the low controlling condition” (qtd. in Grolnick et al. 153). There were no significant differences however, observed among the boys. In another striking study, Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons demonstrated how girls are more prone to use self-regulated learning styles that involve “goal setting and planning, keeping records and self-monitoring, and environmental structuring” (qtd. in Grolnick et al. 154). Clearly there is a need for further investigation on gender differences in motivation, attributions to success and failure, and feedback given to students. The studies highlighted have serious implications on the way parents articulate their expectations, manner of motivating students and the eventual development of future career paths of students. The literature on gender differences and motivation often point out the differences in reading experiences between boys and girls, and it is this particular area that Wigfield discussed in the book “Engaging young readers: Promoting achievement and motivation”. Research studies in the past have illustrated how a decline in motivation for learning is readily observed once the child enters primary school years. More often than not, as children advances in level, there is a gradual decrease of intrinsic motivation and an increase in extrinsic motivation. In terms of reading motivation, girls are more positively motivated towards reading compared to boys. According to Wigfield, “even at first grade, girls had higher competence beliefs and expressed greater interest in reading than do boys” (qtd. in Wigfield 145). Similar finding were also reported by Marsh (1989) and McKenna et al. (1995) which states that the “mean level of girls’ liking of reading was higher than that of boys at each grade level from 1 to 6” (qtd. in Wigfield 145). The overall pattern show that gender differences in terms of reading motivation do exist. These differences should help direct teachers in creating the reading curriculum. “Some of the differences, such as boys’ preference for competitive activities in reading, suggest that different instructional practices may be needed to facilitate boys’ and girls’ reading motivation” (qtd. in Wigfield 145). These practices must be carefully taken into consideration to develop self-directed and lifelong learners. The previous paragraphs are discussions from books that described the role of gender differences in motivation. It provides an overview or background of the succeeding sections that will cover two research studies and two articles relating gender differences and motivation. These succeeding literatures will provide further support to the general findings expressed in the books. Resonating with the views of Wigfield, Marinak and Gambrell in 2010 conducted an investigation on gender differences among young learners. Two hundred eighty-eight third grade students from three elementary schools participated in the study. The authors wished to study average reading achievers, and thus only those who scored between the 30th and 60th percentile on the Stanford Achievement Test, Ninth Edition were invited to participate. The readers were assessed using the Motivation to Read Profile or MRP. “The reading survery is a self-report, group-administered instrument that yields levels of existing reading motivation” (Marinak and Gambrell 133). Statistical analyses revealed that there was significant gender differences on motivation to read based on the overall MRP score. Although the self-concept subscale did not yield any significant difference, the value of reading subscale revealed significant differences between boys and girls. Specifically, data shows that “boys who are average readers are less motivated to read, and specifically that they value reading less than girls who are average readers” (Marinak and Gambrell 136). This shows that boys are not only less motivated to read, but this fact seems to be highly correlated with the low value they place on activities related to reading. A limitation to the present study is that it can only be generalised to the particular age or level of the participants in the study. The authors also acknowledge the possibility of other factors affecting reading motivation. Thus, the current study provides future direction for research. It is important to critically examine the practices that may be useful for both boys and girls, and one which will enhance valuing the reading task or exercise. In another study, Preckel, Goetz, Pekrun and Klein, compared the gender differences of average-ability and gifted-ability students in terms of self-concept, interest and motivation in mathematics. The sample consisted of 181 participants each in the two groups: gifted and non-gifted. The students were identified through a random stratified sample of 2,059 sixth-grade students from 81 classes in 42 schools in Germany. A score of above 95% in the non-verbal reasoning test was used to identify the gifted participants. For every gifted participant, a non-gifted participant with an IQ within 1 standard deviation from 100 was matched accordingly based on gender, class and family SES. To measure mathematics ability, a “63-item test based on the concept of mathematical literacy (OECD, 2003)” (Preckel et al. 151) was administered. A German version of the Sears Self-Concept Inventory was adapted to measure academic self-concept in mathematics. Finally, a Likert-scale was used to determine interest in mathematics. It comes as no surprise that the gifted students scored significantly higher in the mathematics ability test than the non-gifted students. The data also showed no significant differences. In terms of self-concept, interest and motivation however, gender differences were apparent and significantly larger for gifted than average-ability students. “Gifted boys got higher scores for these variables than gifted girls but gender differences in the group of average-ability students were small” (Precket et al. 153). There were also significant interaction effects between ability and gender. Furthermore, main effects for self-concept and interest were significantly higher for the boys among the gifted group than the non-gifted boys. Consequently, gifted boys also gave significantly higher ratings for mastery goal orientation as opposed to gifted girls. Results show the strong influence of the socialisation practices in motivation and abilities, compared to cognitive abilities. “Girls in both ability groups showed lower levels of self-concept, interest and motivation (mastery and performance goal orientation) in mathematics than did their male counterparts” (Precket et al. 155). It appears also that gender differences in attitudes towards mathematics were larger in high-ability students than average-ability students. The study is limited, however in its narrow definition of giftedness using the nonverbal reasoning test. The study also focused primarily in mathematics and may not be true for other domains. Moreover, self-concept, interest and motivation were measured through self-reports which may be affected by social desirability and stereotyping. These limitations must be taken into consideration when using the results in various applications. The two final studies discussed in the section are articles published in scholarly and educational magazines/ newspaper that discuss topics related to gender differences in motivation. The first article by Kitchenham categorises the different research conducted by first world countries on the effect of gender on motivation. According to him, “three of the five leading countries that investigate the area (Australia, New Zealand and Great Britain) look for the sociological causes of gender differences and how they impact on achievement while the remaining two countries, Canada and the United States, examine the biological causes of the gender differences and their influence on academic performance” (Kitchenham 34). Those who adhere to the sociological theory believe that there are forces external to the individual which shapes his or her motivation to learn. Certain gender stereotypes have emerged in studies. Girls are more interested and excel better in literacy work while boys find superiority in mathematics and the three core sciences --- biology, chemistry and physics. Research conducted by Millard in 1997 revealed that “children see reading as a decidedly female activity; in fact, boys who enjoyed reading were viewed as odd or feminine” (qtd. in Kitchenham 35). According to the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), among 30,000 Canadian students from 32 countries, girls performed significantly better than boys in reading tests. The average scores of females were in Level 3 whilst those of males were in Level 2. Interest appears to play a significant role as reported by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) that “approximately one-half of all males reported that they read only when it was necessary compared to one-quarter of all females who read only when necessary” (Kitchenham 35). Those who argue for the biological basis of gender differences claim that specific structural differences account for the female’s superior literary skills and the male’s special mathematical abilities. Certain functions dominate the learning styles of the male and female thus, affecting motivation and achievement. In a recent study, a chemical theory to gender differences was formulated with the identification of differences in hormonal levels between males and females as affecting learning. Richardson, on the other hand, “examined the effects of gender, age, and verbal ability on recall performance and the availability and effectiveness on imaginal mediators” (Kitchenham 36). His data revealed that females tend to use imagery to perform tasks and that performing tasks well is positively correlated with females. These views, as expressed by Kitchenham, find value in their pedagogical implications. There are various practices that can be designed and created based on these findings. Whether these gender differences are primarily caused by nature or nurture, the fact remains that gender differences exist and they must be effectively addressed inside the classroom. There has been accumulated research on reading motivation between girls and boys. It appears that one significant issue that educators are facing is encouraging participation and increasing interest in literacy among boys. William Brozo is a researcher and professor of literacy who has given a special attention on boys and books. According to Brozo, the following facts have been found among boys in terms of reading: “(1) by fourth grade, the average boy is two years behind the average girls in reading and writing; (2) boys score significantly lower than girls on the National Assessment of Educational Progress reading and writing assessments; (3) boys make up 70% of special education classes and are four times more likely to have ADHD than girls; (4) boys are 50% more likely to be retained a grade than girls and are three times more likely in reading/learning disabilities settings; (5) boys around the world score less in reading and writing and have lower motivation to read and write than their female counterparts” (Reading Today n.p.). Brozo claims that recognising gender differences is the key to unlocking the potentials of boys in literacy. “Repetitive drilling on basic skills can lead to boredom, inattention, and behaviour problems” (Reading Today n.p.). In his book, “Bright Beginnings for Boys,” Zombo introduces different materials and instructional methodologies to increase engagement and participation of boys in literacy activities. The literatures discussed above provide strong support for the need to continuously examine the role of gender in motivation across different age groups. The studies have hinted toward possible significant interaction effects between gender and age groups in terms of motivation. It would be helpful to examine these variables and be able to provide insight and implications in pedagogy. These are indeed positive breakthroughs to increasing the interest and achievement of each and every child in the classroom. Works Cited: “Boys and books: New IRA offers idea for engaging young boys in reading.” Reading Today December 2008/ January 2009. Web. 15 May 2010. Graham, Sandra, and April Z. Taylor. “Ethnicity, Gender, and the Development of Achievement Values.” Development of achievement motivation. Ed. Allan Wigfield and Jacquelynne S. Eccles. San Diego, California: Academic Press, 2002. Print. Grolnick, Wendy S., Suzanne T. Gurland, Karen F. Jacob, and Wendy Decourcey. “The Development of Self-Detrmination in Middle Childhoold and Adolescence.” Development of Achievement Motivation. Ed. Allan Wigfield and Jacquelynne S. Eccles. San Diego, California: Academic Press, 2002. Print. Kitchenham, Andrew. “Vive la difference: Gender, motivation and achievement.” School Libraries in Canada, 22.2 (2002): 34 – 44. Web. 17 May 2010. Marinak, Barbara A. and Linda B. Gambrell. “Reading motivation: Exploring the elementary gender gap.” Literacy Research and Instruction 49.2 (2010): 129-141. Print. Preckel, Franzis, Thomas Goetz, Reinhard Pekrun and Michael Klein. “Gender differences in gifted and average-ability students.” The Gifted Child Quarterly, 52.2 (2008): 146-159. Print. Wigfield, Allan. “Facilitating Children’s Reading Motivation.” Engaging young readers: Promoting achievement and motivation. Ed. Linda Barker, Mariam Jean Dreher and John T. Guthrie. New York, New York: The Guildford Press, 2000. Print. Read More