The Challenges of Active Learning in an Adult Intercultural Classroom - Term Paper Example

The challenges of Active learning in an Adult Intercultural classroom CHAPTER ONE 1.0. Introduction Adult literacy for a long time had been a forgotten issue until early 1970s when the national literacy campaign for the “right to read” started gaining some ground in few isolated countries as cited by Connolly (2006). Before then, policymakers in most countries were preoccupied with children’s education. Casey (2009) clearly demonstrates that the provision of adult literacy education was the mandate of community groupings and local education authorities until 1972 when the national literacy campaign was fully popularised. It is further argued that at the outset of this campaign, the consensus was that the issue of adult literacy was a temporary problem requiring only short-term funding for its solution (Robinson, 2006). This arrangement took a big toll on the advancement of adult literacy. Works by Casey (2009) and Grummell (2007) report that some reprieve was realized in 1992 when the “Further and Higher Education Act” was passed in England and Wales, making Adult Basic Education (ABE) a permanent part of further education. From this point on, stringent measures have been put in place to internationalise Adult Basic Education (ABE) but not without haranguing challenges. It is from this argument that founds the basis of this study which begs the question “what are the challenges of active learning in an adult intercultural classroom”. 1.1. Background to the study From the outset, Connolly (2006) defines education as a kind of process that impacts permanently up on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual in a formative manner. Alternatively, education can be considered in technical terms to refer to the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). Connolly (2006) further stresses that “the right to education is been established as a fundamental human right as provided for in Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights since 1952”. This piece of legislation obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education to all humanities as postulated by Connolly (2006). Consequently, education is seen as a concept encompassing the grand process in which students can learn something. This definition differs significantly from that of learning. According to Psaltis & Duveen (2006), learning is a process that equips learners “with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion of a stipulated course of study”. Apart from the mainstream traditional systems of education, it is indicated that adult education has grown in popularity, taking on many forms which range from formal class-based learning through self-directed learning to e-learning according to the ideas of (Robinson, 2006). Numerous researchers (Connolly, 2006; Casey, 2009 and Nilson, 2007) have demonstrated that adult education has largely taken on a non-traditional form in which instruction has employed non-conventional means. The basic principles of the instructional designs employed in adult education borrow heavily from other forms of education designed for students with special needs ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability (Ryan, 2008). It is further illustrated by Psaltis, & Duveen (2006) that these forms of education have been designed employing alternative educational philosophies and methods. In light of the recent demand to enhance academic success for all learners and promote the values of multiculturalism in society, curriculum developers the world over have found it necessary to include indigenous methods and content in education (Nilson, 2007). In view of this development, it has emerged that adult education has so far been faced with a myriad of challenges. To begin with, researchers have insisted that the content delivery methods are widely varied ranging from rote teaching to the current active learning under study. These varied learning modalities have not been found all fulfilling but numerous studies the world over have clearly demonstrated that active learning remains the most viable of them all (Robinson, 2006). 1.2. Statement of the research problem In this study it has been exemplified that ABE has met with a lot of bottle necks. The issue of the most appropriate method of content delivery in light of the current internationalization of education has proved to be a big challenge. Today’s classrooms have been found to be mixture of greatly diverse cultures which must be unified in one common learning environment. Connolly, (2006) writes that the Irish educational system is culturally dependent on the rote method of teaching where the teacher is considered the source all knowledge and learners as mere recipients. Thus, introducing active learning in an adult classroom with learners from diverse cultural backgrounds proves a most challenging undertaking. CHAPTER TWO Literature Search 2.0. Introduction This chapter presents the literature search of the study in three sections. The first section presents a brief discourse of the various learning modalities employed in the world. The second section reviews the inherent challenges common in the world in the delivery of education to all particularly in adult literacy while the third section is a brief overview of the cultural effects on the delivery of ABE. 2.1. Learning styles in adult education The term “andragogy” has been used by Knowles instead of ”pedagogy” to clarify the differences between the curriculum development needs of adults and that of children as cited in Nilson (2007). Additionally, McKeachie & Svinicki (2006) explain that Knowles identified the need for adults to be motivated to learn, to be active in the learning process, and to have their past experiences respected in the learning environment. It is further argued that when adults participate in learning activities, they bring many years of experiences with them (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). Studies show that learning in adult learners is a little bit easy because they need only to integrate new learning with their past experiences (Ryan, 2008). Thus when difficult situations arise, perceptions based on prior learning must be re-examined to overcome them. Nilson (2007) and Murtagh (2009) argue that adult learners can choose to reject the contradictory new information or revise their previous views as opposed to conventional young learners. Works by Murtagh (2009) indicate that adults tend to prefer active learning where instructional experiences are related to their real life situations. This is because as explained by Merriam et al (2007), active learning allows learners to participate in class and takes them beyond the role of passive listener and note taker. This has been found to be very motivating on the part of the learners. Moreover, the role of the teacher is to direct learners and help them “discover” the material on their own as they work in groups to understand the curriculum (Ryan, 2008). Available research findings indicate that active learning encompasses a variety of techniques that may include small group discussion, role playing, hands-on projects, and teacher driven questioning (Fleming, 2007). All these techniques give learners great autonomy to initiate and direct their own education. McKeachie & Svinicki (2006) and Merriam et al (2007) thus conclude that retention of information for adult learners can be significantly maximized through activity. More research work by McKeachie & Svinicki (2006) indicates that adult learners may show impatience when given general information. They also find little use for isolated facts that lack concrete examples of real life situations. It is thus recommended that the adult education teacher should employ a mixture of factual information with practical situations to refute any myths or misconceptions related to their learning disabilities (Ryan, 2008). Additionally, it is sensible to use hands-on experience that motivates all learners alike regardless of either being adults or children. Merriam et al (2007) insists that all adult learners appreciate and enjoy the opportunity to actively participate in an activity in the classroom. This is the basis of active learning which has been found to promote the development of higher cognitive processes such as analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluation according to the views of Fleming (2007). In the views of the researcher, it is in order to state that lecturing promotes the acquisition of facts as opposed to whole academic development in the learner found in active learning. Furthermore, the strategies that promote active learning have been found to have five common characteristics. Firstly, learners are involved in class activities (Fleming, 2007) like reading, discussion and writing which are beyond listening. Additionally, more emphasis is placed in developing skills in learners rather than the transmission of mere information (Ryan, 2008). Similarly, it is found that the learners are involved in higher order thinking skills like analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluation which develop the whole learner (Michael, 2006). Finally, active learning has placed full autonomy on the learner to explore his or her values and attitudes according to Nilson (2007). 2.2. Challenges facing the delivery of adult literacy One of the challenges facing the delivery of adult literacy has been first of all to come up with an inclusive curriculum that is reflective of both our multicultural society and individual differences among citizens (Murtagh, 2009). To teach students to participate effectively in a democratic and pluralistic society (Ryan, 2008), it is critical for curriculum developers to respond to the requirements of various groups within our classes as well as that of individual students. Since every classroom is a cultural community reflective of the disciplines and perspectives studied, the learners and teachers alike must strive to overcome cultural barriers and be unified in their common purpose of education (Dubois et al, 2006). One can convincingly argue that successful learning requires an intercultural approach where tutors and their learners are responsible for internationalizing education (Murtagh, 2009). In this way, learners must endeavour to understand that “learning is about the generation, mutual reflection, and critiquing and expanding of ideas and concepts” (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). As already established, one activity that both traditional aged students and adult learners prefer is hands-on experience in their quest for knowledge. Unfortunately, it has been established that lack of enough and appropriate resources pose the greatest challenge particularly in the intercultural classrooms. The teaching of ICT has been reported to the hardest hit (Ryan, 2008) due to limited access to computers as well as computer phobia amongst adult learners. Because motivation to learn originates from the adult learner's expectations of the usefulness of the content, it becomes crucial for the teachers to convince the learners that the material presented is important and useful to them (Ryan, 2008). Otherwise resentment may develop and become a barrier to meaningful learning particularly when learners are engaged in rote learning. One effective approach to this challenge as suggested by Fleming (2007) is to attend to the variety of learning styles in any classroom situation. Communication challenges become obvious when teaching methodologies developed in one educational context are exported to another educational context as explained by Dubois et al (2006). In transplanting American educational models to Irish classrooms for example, it has been reported that there is a big diversity in the cultural etiquette in the two contexts. While traditionally the Irish educational setting is predominantly lecturing on the part of the teacher (Casey, 2009), the American new instructional strategies of active learning puts the teacher more into the role of course designer, discussion facilitator, and coach. The student on the other hand is involved in discovering the subject of the course, a fact that has been reported to be challenging to the Irish adult learner (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). Works by Dubois et al (2006) has acknowledged that cultural learning is a first step in active learning in an adult intercultural classroom. Unfortunately, studies show that insufficient attention has been paid to the culture of classroom learning addressing “teachers’ and learners’ cultural values, beliefs, roles, expectations, and conceptions of teaching and learning” as in the words of Dubois et al (2006). Another challenge facing the delivery of adult literacy has been reported to be the quality of teachers. Studies by Casey (2009) suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance. Furthermore, countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). From research evidence, technology has been identified as an increasingly influential factor in education and as such teachers need to update themselves appropriately to remain relevant and effective. In addition to this, the nature of the learners plays an important role in facilitating the delivery of literacy across all levels of learners. Fleming (2007) argues that one difference between traditional undergraduates and adult students is the motivation they bring to learning. For instance, many students pursue a degree programme so that they can get a job in the end. Thus their primary motivation is not learning (Fleming, 2007) but to get a good grade by all means. 2.3. Cultural effects on delivery of ABE Numerous studies by Casey (2009) and Fleming (2007) indicate that culture influences people’s perceptions, cognition, value systems, and ways of communication. Modes of communication are socio-culturally shaped (Connolly, 2006; Nilson, 2007) and cultural differences, therefore, often become potential sources of miscommunication as participants make sense of their interactions by using different interpretative frameworks (Casey, 2009; Fleming, 2007). It is especially true of intercultural communication where “the problem for intercultural understanding then becomes a problem of incommensurability between sets of rules” (Nilson, 2007), and where people’s behavior does not seem to conform to existing values, beliefs, roles, and expectations (Nilson, 2007). In intercultural communication, conflicts become inevitable in spite of the good intentions of all participants (Robinson, 2006). This situation was reported by Fleming (2007) in demonstrating tensions found between expatriate teachers and Chinese students. More research work by Robinson (2006) shows that there exists a role boundary between teachers and learners which seriously influences teacher- learner roles and expectations. Consequently, role conflicts are bound to arise when the boundary is breached and expectations unfulfilled (Hanushek & Welch, 2006). These role conflicts have shown dire consequences on the delivery of adult based education. However, both teachers and learners judge the appropriateness of their actions on the basis of their respective cultural expectations as cited in Robinson (2006). Fleming (2007) maintains that it is the degree of proximity of the similarity of teacher- learner expectations that plays a significant role in the success or failure of the delivery of adult based education. This similarity, however, is difficult to achieve as teachers and learners rarely share a common “agenda”, even in the same culture, let alone across different cultures according to the views of Robinson (2006). CHAPTER THREE Methodology 3.0. Introduction In this study, the researcher investigated the challenges of delivering adult literacy in a multicultural classroom of eight adult learners drawn from diverse cultural backgrounds. To carry out this study, the researcher employed two types of research, namely primary and secondary research. The aim of this study was primarily to identify the possible sources of misunderstandings in intercultural communication and the kinds of effects they can have in the classroom setting (McKeachie & Svinicki, 2006). Specifically, the researcher examined the pedagogies employed by various teachers in delivering adult literacy in an Irish adult educational setting. Responses from both teachers and adult learners who participated in the study were analysed using appropriate tools of analysis and the results presented as in chapter four of this research paper. 3.1. Type of research carried out From the outset, it has been indicated that two types of research, primary research and secondary research were undertaken by the researcher in conducting this study. In the primary research, random sampling technique was employed from whence a sample of about eight adult learners and four teachers was selected from prior identified tertiary institutions offering adult education in Ireland. All of the participants were provided with specially constructed questionnaires for each specific group of subjects. There were two sets of contrary questionnaires with questions that were not pre-emptive (McKeachie & Svinicki, 2006). Thus a set of eight questionnaires was completed by the adult learners and another set of four questionnaires by the sampled teachers. The researcher thought it wise to research this population because it was felt to be very critical in this study. The secondary research on the hand involved the use of library sources of information to verify data collected in the primary research. 3.2. Areas of study This survey was conducted in four tertiary institutions and universities in the Maynooth city in Ireland from September to November, 2009. 3.3. The focus group Subjects taking part in the study were drawn from adult learners undergoing an Irish adult educational setting at tertiary levels and teachers who had at one time attended a multicultural classroom as learners during their learning experiences. In total, eight adult learners with diverse cultural backgrounds were interviewed. These were randomly selected for the semi-structured interviews (Nilson, 2007). All the learners had some intercultural classroom experience from their earlier levels of education for periods ranging from six months to one year (McKeachie & Svinicki, 2006). Similarly, four teachers working in tertiary institutions and universities were also involved in the survey. To have gender equity, the focus group thus consisted of equal number of males and females in both cases. Two of the teachers held relevant qualifications in teaching adult learners in a multicultural classroom while the other two were not qualified. For the purposes of clarity and brevity in this paper, all the adult learners will be identified as ALs and the qualified teachers as QTs. The unqualified teachers on the other hand are identified as UTs. 3.4. Instrumentation The type of instruments used in this survey to collect data included questionnaires and interviews, occasionally involving group discussions (Nilson, 2007). Thus, data from both the interview and questionnaire were used for the purpose of this paper (Nilson, 2007). All interviews lasted from thirty to sixty minutes each, were audio-taped, transcribed and translated into English where appropriate for native speakers (McKeachie & Svinicki, 2006). 3.5. Reliability and validity of the study The survey design used in this study particularly in the area of the questionnaire was constructed by the researcher and was found to be lacking in reliability and validity when checked against other such instruments used in research. The interviews on the other hand presented a communication barrier on the part of native speakers who were not fluent in English. CHAPTER FOUR Results 4.0. Introduction This chapter is divided into two sections. The first section of this chapter presents the descriptive data of the findings of the study while the second section discusses the results of the study. 4.1. Descriptive data: Findings from the focus group From the results of the study, it was the intention of many all the teachers particularly the QTs to try and create an interactive atmosphere to enable students to become involved in the classroom activities (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). Most of them believed that adult education learning could not occur without involving learners in spontaneous interactions (Murtagh, 2009) such as group work, discussions, debates and role plays. Similarly, it was also their contention that by creating a democratic setting and by giving students autonomy to participate eased the challenges of content delivery in an intercultural classroom (Nilson, 2007). As a result, all the QTs held that well-structured and systematic teaching was neither important nor necessary because the structures were bound to result in boredom to the learners. To them, the intention of employing the interactive approach was to motivate learners into full participation and thereby be able to internationalise education (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). On the hand, learners’ responses were varied as much as their cultural backgrounds differed. A substantial percentage of teachers (QTs) discovered that it was extremely difficult to implement the interactive approach of active learning due to the adult learners’ cultural perceptions of the teacher-learner roles as indicated by Fleming (2007). Consequently, in the experience of the QTs, the success was very limited as majority of the adult learners were reluctant to participate in group work, discussions, and role plays (Hanushek & Welch, 2006). Similarly, one of the QT noticed that the mode of participation he adopted in his teaching was at great variance with the Irish traditional teacher-learner role expectations as in the findings by McKeachie & Svinicki (2006). The teacher reported that the active learning approach was not popular with the Irish adult learners who preferred lecturing method to discussions and group work. According to him, it was noticed that some learners had developed palpable tensions between teacher-learner and learner-learner equally. The basic contributor to this was found to be in their diverse cultural differences. This was in line with (Nilson, 2007) findings where many learners felt disoriented in a learner-learner interaction involving intercultural settings. Almost equally, all the QTs using their active learning in their classrooms reported chronic absenteeism in their sessions, an indicator of students’ negative attitudes towards teaching (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). This was in contrast to results reported by the UTs who recorded full class attendance during their sessions with very lively learners. Even though there was no rampart absenteeism in the UTs’ classes, it was surprising that there was no significance learning taking place as compared to what was happening in the QTs’ classes. This was also in line with research findings that active learning is more results orientated than other rote methods of teaching (Hanushek & Welch, 2006). Further results indicated that almost all the QTs participating in the survey reported that they often used various instruments to obtain feedback about their teaching from the learners (Nilson, 2007). But on close analysis of the results revealed that these teachers “often failed to correctly interpret the culturally-loaded and deceptive messages from the feedback because they their continued ritualized teaching even though it was not very much appreciated” (Murtagh, 2009). 4.2. Discussion From the results presented here, the study illustrates that there is a marked discrepancy between the modalities of teaching employed by the qualified teachers and the culture of learning on the part of the Irish adult learners. The QTs were found to prefer active learning which put strong emphasis on the discourse of participation while the Irish adult learners enjoyed lecturing method which emphasised the culture of teacher authority (Murtagh, 2009). From this argument, it could be concluded that cultural factors play a crucial part in an individual’s perceptions of the societal expectations in regard to the individual’s cultural mindset (Nilson, 2007). It is therefore these perceptions that ultimately determine the styles of learning. To forces culturally different styles of learning-teaching process especially in adult learners leads to resentment and probably the failure of learning process taking place (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). Misunderstandings and communication breakdown in intercultural classrooms have been known to arise from the fact that participants wrongly perceive cultural differences to be insignificant (Hanushek & Welch, 2006). This assumption was erroneously interpreted by majority of the participants in this study. Moreover, the QTs using the active learning approach had a myriad of hiccups frustrating their efforts. For one, while emphasising the importance of learner participation, the QTs may have failed to recognise that not all cases required learner participation as an effective teaching style (Connolly, 2006). As the survey data show, the QTs made every attempt to engage learners in group activities in almost all courses (Michael, 2006). Some cases needed teacher guidance for effective learning to occur. Similarly, the class size is another very crucial element of the active learning approach. The sample size used in the study was small enough to facilitate group work and discussions effectively as stated by McKeachie & Svinicki (2006). This was a mitigating factor on the part of the QTs because formation of group work and discussion groups was a simple and viable task. Commending further on the issue of adult learners’ group activities and discussions, it was established that the issue generated a lot of anxieties, fears, and frustration among the adult learners and ultimately resulted into teacher-learner tensions (Murtagh, 2009). Studies by McKeachie & Svinicki (2006) on one hand demonstrated that this outcome was a counter-productive effect of the active learning approach, which is supposedly a form of learning in a stress free environment (Nilson, 2007). From various works by Grummell (2007), the Irish educational tradition is illustrated to pay much more attention to written learning modalities than those modalities of active participation. In this regard, the active learning approach taken on by the qualified teachers expects learners to actively be involved in group activities as opposed to Irish culture that simply honours lecturing modalities of learning coupled with use of numerous written texts (Hanushek & Welch, 2006). This difference in ideologies pitted qualified teachers against the Irish adult learners who on one hand considered them “unsystematic and disorganised because they put much emphasis on learner participation and ignored the importance of written discourse” (Michael, 2006). The QTs were further considered lazy and inconsiderate because they involved adult learners in group work that seemed to waste their time that was needed for internalising the curriculum (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). As if this was not enough, it is further reported that the qualified teachers through their funny style of teaching did not use textbooks (Michael, 2006). In their own views, textbooks were perceived as an impediment to teachers’ classroom creativity and spontaneity in interactive classes (Murtagh, 2009). Learning without textbooks on the other hand gave students a sense of insecurity and anxiety as explained by McKeachie & Svinicki (2006). This contradicting position was a big hindrance to implementation of active learning. From the literature search reviewed, it has been clearly demonstrated that the validation of active learning approach is to exercise learner autonomy (Nilson, 2007). All along, research work done on pedagogical styles have indicated that learners are required to be responsible for their own learning while the teacher’s role remain facilitative rather than authoritarian (Hanushek & Welch, 2006). This is a new trend and appears to contradict the culture of learning in many third world countries which give the teacher authoritative role in the learning process (Ryan, 2008). According to Grummell (2007), this kind of culture portrays the teacher as an authority, transmitter and arbiter of knowledge. The idea of active learning therefore becomes culturally incompatible with that of authority (Murtagh, 2009). CHAPTER FIVE 5.0. Introduction This is the final chapter of this report. It is divided into two sections. The first section deals with the researcher’s attempt to change the content delivery in Adult Basic Education in light of the evaluation of the study. Section two presents conclusions of the study and recommendations for future research in the area of ABE in multicultural setting. 5.1. Changing the delivery practice in light of the evaluation of the study. It is the intention of the researcher to use cultural synergy in an attempt to mitigate the emerging challenges from the study. It is therefore the researcher’s suggestion that the survey data which has demonstrated the existence of an invisible boundary between Irish adult learners and teachers particularly the qualified ones in their interpretation of their individual roles and role expectations (Hanushek & Welch, 2006) should be adopted. To succeed in managing an intercultural classroom, Grummell (2007) states that “different cultures be engaged in a process of mutual learning to understand each other’s cultural values, beliefs, and role expectations ‘without loss of their own cultural status, role or identity’, by identifying differences in cultures of learning, making explicit the hidden curriculum, and articulating their expectations of each other”. Moreover, a synergetic culture as argued by Michael (2006) “encourages the fostering of attitudes to learn, to tolerate, to reflect, to adapt, and to assimilate”. It is further suggested that all adult teachers alike must open their conceptual and methodological gates (Ryan, 2008) and to be welcoming to individuals from other cultures. Additionally, the adult education teachers should constantly examine their pedagogies to ensure that what they teach is relevant. This should be in line the curriculum content and “the learners’ subjectivities, their cultural positions, their lived experiences, and the intricacies of different learning styles in the local culture” (Nilson, 2007). The teacher-learner clashes reported in this survey remain largely with the teachers’ selection of the teaching style that is incompatible with the Irish culture of learning (Psaltis & Duveen, 2006). It is therefore very important that both the QTs and Irish adult learners develop cultural sensitivities to enable them to cross cultural borders made up of intersubjectivities as cited in McKeachie & Svinicki (2006). At the same time, it is necessary for the two groups to “share each other’s views, learn from each other, respect each other’s differences, and form an alliance to achieve their ultimate shared goals by forsaking their clock logic and ‘we’ve-got-it-right’ attitudes” (Ryan, 2008). Based on this understanding, it is becomes critical for both teachers and learners to understand each others’ culture of learning to forestall any misunderstandings (Hanushek & Welch, 2006). In the absence of such a move and a cooperative atmosphere, adult teachers’ intentions to cross the cultural border and hence transform the status quo may not achieve much success (Murtagh, 2009). 5.2. Conclusions and Recommendations for future research From the foregoing, it has been established that it is mandatory to equip the adult learners with alternatives and promote their learning by adopting different learning options (Hanushek & Welch, 2006). Rote learning-teaching habits and a poor ability to tolerate new and conflicting conceptions may not lead to border crossing, or to cross-cultural understandings as expressed by Grummell (2007). In the process of border crossing, however, teachers play a primary role in reaching out to learners and taking a further step to understand the learner’s culture. Fleming (2007) emphasizes that it is “professionally irresponsible to assume that only students have to adapt and accommodate while academics insist on maintaining their positions”. In the researcher’s standpoint of view, it is hoped that the establishment of a synergetic culture will help the participants clear the stumbling blocks in intercultural interactions, especially in curriculum implementation in ABE and learning in cross-cultural settings (Connolly, 2006). Both the qualified teachers and Irish adult learners need to make an effort to “accommodate each other’s views, to tolerate the differences, to narrow the gulf in their fundamental assumptions about teaching and learning, and to find ways to address any problems and misunderstandings” (Hanushek & Welch, 2006). Accordingly, this helps learners to break down cultural stereotypes in the society as a whole (Murtagh, 2009). From the study, the researcher has been able to establish that some things work better in teaching adults than others. Grummell (2007) explains that one must be careful in making sure the nature of an activity given is appropriate for older learners. Any style of teaching employed should be of necessity first explained to the learners (Connolly, 2006). It is clear in the reader’s mind that a lot has to be done in this area of ABE. It is therefore the researcher’s recommendations that some more research be done in the area of adult learners, particularly in the section on what interests them most (Murtagh, 2009). References Casey, L. (2009). Pathways to Competence and Participation in the Digital World. PhD thesis, National University of Ireland: Maynooth. Connolly, B. (2006). Adult and Community Education: A Model for Higher Education? National University of Ireland: Maynooth. Dubois, H., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006). Improving international nurse training: an American–Italian case study. International Nursing Review, 53(2): 110–116. Fleming, T. (2007). The Awful Truth and Budgies: What Liberation is offered by Learning? Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland. Grummell, B. (2007). The “Second Chance” Myth: Equality of Opportunity in Irish Adult Education Policies. British Journal of Educational Studies, 55 (2). pp. 182-201. Hanushek, E & Welch, F. (2006). Causal effect of education on earnings. Amsterdam: North Holland. McKeachie, W & Svinicki, M. (2006). McKeachie's Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research and Theory for College and University Teachers. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co. Merriam, S., Caffarella, R & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Michael, K. (2006). A snapshot of a vanishing rural lifestyle. Rural Readings. Murtagh, L. (2009). The Irish adult education policy process since 1997: some lessons for the future. PhD thesis, National University of Ireland: Maynooth. Nilson, L. B. (2007). Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors, 2nd edition. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Psaltis, C & Duveen, G. (2006). Social relations and cognitive development: The influence of conversation type and representations of gender. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 407-430. Robinson, K. (2006). Schools Kill Creativity. TED Talks, Monterrey, CA, USA. Ryan, A. (2008). Circling the Wagons: Disability and Access to Education. Melbourne, Australia. Read More